Memory

Semiconductor Memory

• Memory refers to Semiconductor Memory.

• Hold digital information 0s and 1s.
• Workspace for processor.
• Temporary storage area where the programs and data
being operated on by the processor reside.
• Starting a program brings the program files and data
into RAM. The files and data remain in RAM as long
as the program is running.
• Main memory in a system is a collection of chips or
modules that are plugged into the motherboard.
• Chips must be compatible with the motherboard.
 Semiconductor Memory
• In the design of all computers, semiconductor
memories are used as primary storage for code and
data.
• They are connected directly to the CPU and they are
the memory that the CPU first asks for information
(code and data).
• For this reason, semiconductor memories are
sometimes referred to as primary memory.
• The main requirement of primary memory is that it
must be fast in responding to the CPU
 Types of Memory
Two main types of memory used in PCs:
• ROM (Read-Only Memory)
– PROM,
– EPROM,
– EEPROM,
– Flash EPROM, and
– Mask ROM
• RAM (Random Access Memory)
– SRAM (used as cache),
– DRAM, and
– NV-RAM
 ROM
• ROM is found on the motherboard plus on any
devices that need to be accessed during startup.
– Video cards
– SCSI cards
– Enhanced IDE controller cards
– Network Interface cards
 ROM
• Motherboard ROM contains four main programs:
– POST (power on self test). A series of test
routines that test the system components.
– CMOS Setup. A menu-driven application that
allows the user to set system configuration
parameters, options, security settings, and
preferences.
– Bootstrap Loader. The routine that scans the
floppy disk and hard drive looking for an
operating system to load.
– BIOS (basic input/output system). Device drive
programs that provided a standard interface to the
other system hardware.
 Characteristics of Memory
– Capacity,
– Organization, and
– Speed
 Memory Capacity of Computers/Chips
• The number of bits that a computer/chip can store is
called its capacity.
• While the memory capacity of a memory IC chip is
always given in bits,
• The memory capacity of a computer is given in
bytes.
– 4M IC memory chip means 4 megabits.
– 4M computer memory means 4 megabytes.
Organization and Capacity
 Speed
• One of the most important characteristics of a
memory chip is the speed at which data can be
accessed from it.
• To access the data, the address is presented to the
address pins, and after a certain amount of time has
elapsed, the data shows up at the data pins.
• The shorter this elapsed time, the better, and
consequently, the more expensive the memory chip.
 Speed
• The speed of the memory chip is commonly referred
to as its access time.
• The access time of memory chips varies from a few
nanoseconds to hundreds of nanoseconds,
depending on the IC technology used in the design
and fabrication.
 ROM (read-only memory)
• ROM is the type of memory that does not lose its
contents when the power is turned off.
• For this reason, ROM is also called nonvolatile
memory .
• There are different types of read-only memory, such
as
– PROM,
– EPROM,
– EEPROM,
– flash EPROM, and
– mask ROM.
 PROM (programmable ROM)
• PROM refers to the kind of ROM that the user can burn
information into.
• In other words, PROM is a user-programmable memory.
• For every bit of the PROM, there exists a fuse.
• PROM is programmed by blowing the fuses.
• If the information burned into PROM is wrong, that PROM
must be discarded since internal fuses are blown
permanently.
• For this reason, PROM is also referred to as OTP (one-time
programmable).
• The process of programming ROM is also called burning
ROM and requires special equipment called a ROM burner
or ROM programmer.
Organization and Capacity of 27128
 ROM chips
• Table 11-2 shows examples of some popular ROM
chips and their characteristics.
• Notice the patterns of the IC numbers.
• For example, 27128-20 refers to UV-EPROM that
has the capacity of 128K bits and access time of 200
nanoseconds.
• The capacity of the memory chip is indicated in the
part number and the access time is given with a zero
dropped.
• In part numbers, C refers to CMOS technology.
ROM
ROMs
 EPROM (erasable programmable ROM)
• EPROM was invented to allow making changes in the
contents of PROM after it is burned.
• In EPROM, one can program the memory chip and erase it
thousands of times. This is especially useful during
development of the prototype of a microprocessor-based
project.
• The only problem with EPROM is that erasing its contents
can take up to 20 minutes.
• All EPROM chips have a window that is used to shine
ultra-violet (UV) radiation to erase its contents.
• For this reason, EPROM is also referred to as UV-erasable
EPROM or simply UV-EPROM.
• Figure 11-1 shows the pins for a UV-EPROM chip.
2764 UV-EPROM
 EPROM (erasable programmable ROM)
• To program a UV-EPROM chip, the following steps must be taken:
1. Its contents must be erased. To erase a chip, it is removed from its
socket on the system board and placed in EPROM erasure equipment
to expose it to UV radiation for 15- 20 minutes.
2. Program the chip. To program a UV-EPROM chip, place it in the
ROM burner (programmer). To burn code or data into EPROM, the
ROM burner uses 12.5 volts or higher, depending on the EPROM
type. This voltage is referred to as VPP in the UV-EPROM data
sheet.
3. Place the chip back into its socket on the system board. As can be seen
from the above steps, in the same way that there is an EPROM
programmer (burner), there is also separate EPROM erasure
equipment.
• The main problem, and indeed the major disadvantage of UV-
EPROM, is that it cannot be programmed while in the system board
(motherboard). To find a solution to this problem, EEPROM was
invented.
 EEPROM
• Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM.
• EEPROM, where one can erase a desired section or
byte.
 Flash memory EPROM
• Since the early 1990s, flash EPROM has become a
popular user-programmable memory chip, and for
good reasons.
• First, the process of erasure of the entire contents
takes less than a second; or one might say in a flash,
hence its name: flash memory.
• In addition, the erasure method is electrical and for
this reason it is sometimes referred to as flash
EEPROM.
• To avoid confusion, it is commonly called flash
memory.
 Flash memory EPROM
• The major difference between EEPROM and flash
memory is the fact that when flash memory's
contents are erased the entire device is erased, in
contrast to EEPROM, where one can erase a desired
section or byte.
• Although there are some flash memories recently
made available in which the contents are divided
into blocks and the erasure can be done block by
block, unlike EEPROM, no byte erasure option is
available.
 Flash memory EPROM
• Due to the fact that flash memory can be programmed while
it is in its socket on the system board, it is becoming widely
used as a way to upgrade the BIOS ROM of the PC.
• Some designers believe that flash memory will replace the
hard disk as a mass storage medium. This would increase
the performance of the computer tremendously, since flash
memory is semiconductor memory with access time in the
range of l00 ns compared with disk access time in the range
of tens of milliseconds.
• For this to happen, flash memory's program/erase cycles
must become infinite, just like hard disks.
 Program/erase cycle
• Program/erase cycle refers to the number of times
that a chip can be erased and programmed before it
becomes unusable.
• At this time, the program/erase cycle is 10,000 for
flash and EEPROM, 1000 for UV-EPROM, and for
RAM and disks it is infinite.
 Mask ROM
• Mask ROM refers to a kind of ROM whose contents are
programmed by the IC manufacturer.
• In other words, it is not a user-programmable ROM.
• The terminology mask is used in IC fabrication.
• Since the process is costly, mask ROM is used when the
needed volume is high and it is absolutely certain that the
contents will not change.
• It is common practice to use UV-EPROM for the
development phase of a project, and only after the code/data
have been finalized is mask ROM ordered.
• The main advantage of mask ROM is its cost, since it is
significantly cheaper than other kinds of ROM, but if an
error in the data/code is found, the entire batch must be
thrown away.
 RAM (random access memory)
• RAM memory is called volatile memory since
cutting off the power to the IC will mean the loss of
data.
• Sometimes RAM is also referred to as RAWM (read
and write memory), in contrast to ROM, which
cannot be written to.
• There are three types of RAM:
– Static RAM (SRAM),
– Dynamic RAM (DRAM), and
– NV-RAM (nonvolatile RAM).
 SRAM (static RAM)
• Storage cells in static RAM memory are made of flip-flops and
therefore do not require refreshing in order to keep their data.
• This is in contrast to DRAM, discussed below.
• The problem with the use of flip-flops for storage cells is that each
cell requires at least 6 transistors to build, and the cell holds only 1 bit
of data.
• In recent years, the cells have been made of 4 transistors, which still
is too many.
• The use of 4-transistor cells plus the use of CMOS technology has
given birth to a high-capacity SRAM, but the capacity of SRAM is
far below DRAM.
• Table 11-3 shows some examples of SRAM.
• SRAMs are widely used for cache memory.
• Figure 11-2 shows the pin diagram for Intel's 2147 SRAM chip.
 DRAM (dynamic RAM)
• Since the early days of the computer, the need for
huge, inexpensive read/write memory was a major
preoccupation of computer designers.
• In 1970, Intel Corporation introduced the first
dynamic RAM (random access memory).
• Its density (capacity) was 1024 bits and it used a
capacitor to store each bit.
 DRAM (dynamic RAM)
• The use of a capacitor as a means to store data cuts
down the number of transistors needed to build the
cell; however, it requires constant refreshing due to
leakage.
• This is in contrast to SRAM (static RAM), whose
individual cells are made of flip-flops.
• Since each bit in SRAM uses a single flip-flop and
each flip-flop requires 6 transistors, SRAM has
much larger memory cells and consequently lower
density.
• The use of capacitors as storage cells in DRAM
results in much smaller net memory cell size.
 The advantages and disadvantages of DRAM
• The major advantages are
– high density (capacity),
– cheaper cost per bit, and
– lower power consumption per bit.
• The disadvantage is that
– it must be refreshed periodically, due to the fact that
the capacitor cell loses its charge; furthermore,
– while it is being refreshed, the data cannot be
accessed.
This is in contrast to SRAM's flip-flops, which retain
data as long as the power is on, which do not need to
be refreshed, and whose contents can be accessed at
any time.
 DRAM
• Since 1970, the capacity of DRAM has exploded. After the
lK-bit (1024) chip came the 4K-bit in 1973, and then the
16K chip in 1976.
• The 1980s saw the introduction of 64 K, 256K, and finally
IM and 4M memory chips.
• The 1990s will see 16M, 64M, 256M, and possibly l0-bit
DRAM chips.
• By the time IBM came to the personal computer market,
16K-bit chips were widely used, which is the reason there
are some IBM PCs and compatibles that still have 16K
chips on the motherboard.
• Today, motherboards use 256K, 1M, 4M, and 16M chips.
 Bits and Bytes
• Keep in mind that when talking about IC memory
chips, the capacity is always assumed to be in bits.
• Therefore, a 1 M chip means 1 megabit and a 256K
chip means a 256K-bit memory chip.
• However, when talking about the memory of a
computer system, it is always assumed to be in
bytes.
• For example, if one says that the IBM PC
motherboard has 256K, it means 256K bytes of
memory.
 Packaging issue in DRAM
• In DRAM there is a problem of packing a large number of
cells into a single chip with the normal number of pins
assigned to addresses.
• For example, a 64K-bit chip ( 64Kx 1) must have 16
address lines and 1 data line, requiring 16 pins to send in
the address if the conventional method is used.
• This is in addition to Vcc power, ground, and read/write
control pins.
• Using the conventional method of data access, the large
number of pins defeats the purpose of high density and
small packaging, so dearly cherished by IC designers.
 Multiplexing/Demultiplexing in DRAM
• Therefore, to reduce the number of pins needed for
addresses, multiplexing/demultiplexing is used.
• The method used is to split the address into half and send in
each half of the address through the same pins, thereby
requiring fewer address pins.
• Internally, the DRAM structure is divided into a square of
rows and columns.
• The first half of the address is called the row and the second
half is called the column.
 Packaging issue in DRAM
• For example, in the case of DRAM of 64Kx 1 organization,
the first half of the address is sent in through the 8 pins A0
-A7, and by activating RAS (row address strobe), the
internal latches inside DRAM grab the first half of
the address.
• After that, the second half of the address is sent in
through the same pins and by activating CAS
( column address strobe), the internal latches inside
DRAM again latch this second half of the address.
• This results in using 8 pins for addresses plus RAS
and CAS, for a total of 10 pins, instead of 16 pins
that would be required without multiplexing.
 Packaging issue in DRAM
• To access a bit of data from DRAM, both row and column
addresses must be provided.
• For this concept to work, there must be a 2 by 1 multiplexer
outside the DRAM circuitry and a demultiplexer inside
every DRAM chip.
• Due to the complexities associated with DRAM interfacing
(RAS, CAS, the need for multiplexer and refreshing
circuitry), there are DRAM controllers designed to make
DRAM interfacing much easier.
• However, many small microprocessor based projects that do
not require much RAM (usually less than 64K bytes) use
SRAM instead of DRAM.
 DRAM organization
• In the discussion of EPROM, we noted that all of them have
8 pins for data.
• This is not the case for RAM.
• Although SRAM very often are x4 or x8, DRAM can have
any of x1, x4, x8, or xl6 organizations.
• However, most DRAMs are x1 and x4.
• Example 11-4 illustrates these points.
 DRAM organization
• In some memory chips (notably ROM), the data pins are
called I/O.
• In some DRAMs there are separate pins Din and Dout.
• Figure 11-3 shows a 256Kx 1 DRAM chip with pins A0
-A8 for address, RAS and CAS, WE, (write enable), data in
and data out, as well as power and ground.
• As the density of the DRAM chips goes up, it makes sense
to use higher-density chips to save space on the printed
circuit board.
• For that reason, the memory configuration for various PCs
is different depending on the manufacture date and the
availability of the memory chip at the time of the design.
 NV-RAM (nonvolatile RAM)
• While both DRAM and SRAM are volatile, there is a new
type of RAM called NV-RAM, nonvolatile RAM.
• Like other RAMs, it allows the CPU to read and write to it,
but when the power is turned off the contents are not lost,
just like ROM.
• NV-RAM combines the best of RAM and ROM: the read
and writability of RAM, plus the nonvolatility of ROM.
 NV-RAM (nonvolatile RAM)
• To retain its contents, every NV-RAM chip internally is
made of the following components:
1. It uses extremely power efficient (very, very low power
consumption) SRAM cells built out of CMOS.
2. It uses an internal lithium battery as a backup energy
source.
3. It uses an intelligent control circuitry.
The main job of this control circuitry is to monitor the Vcc pin
constantly to detect loss of the external power supply.
If the power to the VCC pin falls below out-of-tolerance
conditions, the control circuitry switches automatically to its
internal power source, the lithium battery.
In this way, the internal lithium power source is used to retain
the NV-RAM contents only when the external power source is
off.
 NV-RAM (nonvolatile RAM)
• It must be emphasized that all three of the
components above are incorporated into a single IC
chip, and for this reason nonvolatile RAM is a very
expensive type of RAM as far as cost per bit is
concerned.
• Offsetting the cost, however, is the fact that it can
retain its contents up to ten years after the power has
been turned off and allows one to read and write
exactly the same as SRAM.
• See Table 11-3 for NV-RAM parts made by Dallas
Semiconductor.
 Physical RAM Packages
• Physically, the main memory in a system is a
collection of
– chips or
– modules containing chips
• that are usually plugged into the motherboard.
• These chips or modules vary in their electrical and
physical designs and must be compatible with the
system into which they are being installed to
function properly.
 CPU and Chipset
• The CPU and motherboard architecture (chipset)
dictates a particular computer’s physical memory
– capacity,
– the speed and
– data bus width requirements
• that can be installed.
 Individual Memory Chips
• Originally, systems had memory installed via
individual chips.
• They are often referred to as dual inline
package (DIP) chips because of their designs.
• The original IBM XT and AT had 36 sockets on the
motherboard
• for these individual chips, and then more of them
were installed on the memory cards plugged into the
bus slots.
DIP Packages
 Problems of using DIP Memory Chips
• Time-consuming, and Labor-intensive way to
deal with memory,
• They crept out of their sockets over time.
 Solution
• The alternative to this at the time was to have
the memory soldered into either the
motherboard or an expansion card.
• Made memory troubleshooting difficult.
 Module
• What was necessary was a chip that was both
soldered and removable, and that is exactly what
was found in the module called a SIMM.
 Different types of Module
• For memory storage, most modern systems have
adopted the
– SIMM (single inline memory module),
– DIMM (dual inline memory module), or
– RIMM (Rambus Inline Memory Module)
• as an alternative to individual memory chips.
 Modules
• These small boards plug into special connectors on
a motherboard or memory card.
• The individual memory chips are soldered to the
module, so removing and replacing them is
impossible.
• Instead, you must replace the entire module if any
part of it fails.
• The module is treated as though it were one large
memory chip.
 SIMM (Single In-line Memory Module)
• 30-pin SIMM has 8-bit data bus
• 72-pin SIMM has 32-bit data bus

• May have several chips (ex: 2, 3, 8, 9)

 Bank of Memory
• A bank of memory must contain the same amount of
bits as the data bus of the CPU/System.
 Number of Modules make a Memory Bank

Processor Data bus Bank Size Bank Size 30-Pin 72-Pin 168-Pin
No Parity Parity SIMMs SIMMs DIMMs
8088 8-bit 8 bits 9 bits 1 n/a n/a
8086 16-bit 16 bits 18 bits 2 n/a n/a
286 16-bit 16 bits 18 bits 2 n/a n/a
386SX, SL, SLC 16-bit 16 bits 18 bits 2 n/a n/a
486SLC, SLC2 16-bit 16 bits 18 bits 2 n/a n/a
386DX 32-bit 32 bits 36 bits 4 1 n/a
486SX, DX, DX2, 32-bit 32-bits 36 bits 4 1 n/a
DX4,5x86
Pentium, K6 series 64-bit 64 bits 72 bits 8 2 1
Pentium pro, PII, 64-bit 64 bits 72 bits 8 2 1
Celeron, PIII,
P4,Athlon/Duron
 A typical 30-pin SIMM Dimensions
The one shown here is 9-bit, although the dimensions would
be the same for 8-bit.
 30-pin and 72-pin SIMM Pictures
http://www.simmtester.com/page/news/showpubnews.asp?num=44
A typical 72-pin SIMM
A typical 168-pin SDRAM DIMM
A typical 184-pin DDR DIMM
A typical 184-pin RIMM
SDRAM-DIMM vs. DDR-DIMM vs. RIMM
SDRAM-DIMM vs. DDR-DIMM vs. RIMM
 Characteristics of 168-pin SDRAM DIMM
• The DIMM uses serial presence detect (SPD).
• It consists of a small EEPROM or Flash memory
chip on the DIMM that contains specially formatted
data indicating the DIMM’s features.
• This serial data enables the motherboard to
autoconfigure to the exact type of DIMM installed.
 Characteristics of 168-pin SDRAM DIMM
• DIMMs can come in several varieties, including
– unbuffered or buffered and
– 3.3V or 5V.
• All PC systems use unbuffered DIMMs.
• DIMM designs for PCs are almost universally 3.3V.
• If you install a 5V DIMM in a 3.3V socket, it would
be damaged, but fortunately, keying in the socket
and on the DIMM prevents that.
168-pin DRAM DIMM notch key definitions
 Installing SIMM
• Align the module (notch and protrusions in the socket)
• Insert at an angle
• straighten up to snap
 Removing SIMM
• Pull plastic tabs outward
• Push the top at an angle away from the socket
• Pull out of the socket
 Installing DIMM / RIMM
• Align the module (notch and protrusions in the socket)
• Insert at a straight angle (90º)
• Push until the ejector tab locks into place in the notch on the side of the DIMM.