DEVELOPMENT

OF THE ATOMIC
Atoms Made Visible
STRUCTURE
Individual atoms of the element germanium
can be seen in this computerized image
obtained through the use of a scanning
tunneling microscope. The microscope
maps an atomic-scale surface by detecting
an electric current flowing from the surface
to the point of a fine metal probe.
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

All matter consist of tiny particles

Atoms are indestructible and
unchangeable
Elements are made up the same kind
1766-1844 British chemist
of atoms and physicist

Elements combine in simple whole

number ratio
 PLUM PUDDING MODEL

• Developed by J.J.
THOMSON in 1904
• Sphere of positive
charge where negative
charges are embedded

(1856-1940), British physicist and 1906

Nobel laureate.
 RUTHERFORD’S NUCLEAR ATOM
• The atom is mostly empty space
+ • Positive charge is concentrated
in a very small volume:
+
NUCLEUS
+
• The mass of the atom is
+ concentrated in the nucleus
+ (1871-1937), British
physicist, who
became a 1908
Nobel laureate
Alpha-particle scattering experiment
 SUB- ATOMIC PARTICLES

Particle Mass Charge

Electron(e-) 9.11 x 10-28 g -1
Proton(p+) 1.67 x 10-24 g +1
Neutron(n) 1.67 x 10-24g none
 BOHR’S ELECTRONIC ATOM

• Based on a quantum
model – DEFINITE
ENERGY ORBITS
• Electrons in an atom
move around the
nucleus in circular
orbits. (1885-1962), Danish
physicist and 1922
Nobel laureate,
 QUANTUM MECHANICAL ATOM

•Developed by Erwin SCHROEDINGER in the mid 1920’s

•Treats the electron as a wave
•Birth of quantum mechanics
HΨe- = E Ψe-
(1887-1961),
Austrian physicist
H is a mathematical operator and 1933 Nobel
laureate,

Ψe- is the wave function describing an e-

E is the energy of an e-
Ele ctr ic Dischar ge in
Nitr og en
In this discharge tube filled
with nitrogen, an electric
current excites the nitrogen
atoms. Almost
instantaneously, these
excited atoms shed their
excess energy by emitting
light of specific wavelengths.
This phenomenon of discrete
emission by excited atoms
remained unexplained until
the advent of quantum
mechanics in the early 20th
century.
 ATOMIC ORBITALS

• Pictorial representation of the solution to

the Schroedinger’s equation
• Probable region occupied by an electron
HEISENBERG’S Uncertainty Principle
• The position and energy (momentum) of an
electron can not be measured accurately at
a given time
 QUANTUM NUMBERS

The quantum numbers n, l, ml, serve as

the solution to the Schroedinger
equation. Since the solution only has
allowed values, the electron can also be
treated as a discrete particle.
n, l, ml, and ms, the spin quantum
number, completely describe an e-
ALLOWED VALUES OF THE
QUANTUM NUMBERS FOR
AN ELECTRON
• n = 1, 2, 3, . . . n
• l = 0, 1, 2, . . . (n-1)
• ml = + l . . . 0 . . . - l
• ms = ± 1/2
 PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER

n = 1, 2, 3…
• gives the energy level or energy
shell the electron is in
• gives the atomic size of the atom
 AZIMUTHAL OR ORBITAL
QUANTUM NUMBER: l

• identifies the type or shape of orbital or

subshell
n=1, l = 0 1s orbital n=3, l = 0 3s
n=2, l = 0 2s orbital l=1 3p
l = 1 2p orbital l=2 3d
 Electron Density and Orbital Shapes
Atomic orbitals are mathematical descriptions of where the electrons in an atom (or molecule) are most likely to be
found. These descriptions are obtained by solving an equation known as the Schrödinger equation, which expresses
our knowledge of the atomic world. As the angular momentum and energy of an electron increases, it tends to reside
in differently shaped orbitals. The orbitals corresponding to the three lowest energy states are s, p, and d,
respectively. The illustration shows the spatial distribution of electrons within these orbitals. The fundamental nature
of electrons prevents more than two from ever being in the same orbital. The overall distribution of electrons in an
atom is the sum of many such pictures. This description has been confirmed by many experiments in chemistry and
physics, including an actual picture of a p-orbital made by a Scanning Tunneling Microscope.
 MAGNETIC QUANTUM
NUMBER: ml
specifies the ORIENTATION of the orbitals in space
z z

n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0 1s orbital y
y

n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0 2s orbital x
x
2pz
2px

l = 1, ml = +1, 0, -1
z
2px 2pz
y

x
2py
2py
 MAGNETIC QUANTUM
NUMBER: ml

n=3, l = 0, l =1
l = 2, m l = +2, +1, 0, -1, -2
z z z z z

y y y y y

3dxy 3dxz x 3dyz 3dz2

x x x 3dx2-y2 x

3dxy 3dxz 3dyz 3dx2-y2 3dz2

 SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER: mS

Imparts magnetic behavior to an atom

unpaired paired

N
Spin up (+1/2) Spin down(-1/2)
S
 ATOMIC NUMBER AND
ATOMIC MASS
A – MASS NUMBER = number of protons + neutrons
Z – ATOMIC NUMBER = number of protons

NEUTRAL ELEMENT : # of protons = # of electrons

ANION : gain of electrons A
CATION : loss of electrons
Z E
ISOTOPES : same atomic number but different atomic
masses
ISOBARS: same mass numbers but different atomic
numbers
HYDROGEN ISOTOPES
 ATOMIC NUMBER AND
ATOMIC MASS
32
16 S Sulfur has :
• 16 protons (Z)
• 32-16 = 16 neutrons (A)
• 16 electrons since it is
electrically neutral
 Test yourself !
Protons 56 21 28
Neutrons 81 23 16 31
Electrons 18 26
Atomic 50
No.
Mass No. 119
Charge 0 0 +3 -3
AUFBAU PRINCIPLE

1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s . . .
 PAULI’S EXCLUSION
PRINCIPLE
In a given atom, no two electrons can have
the same set of quantum numbers

Right ! EACH
ELECTRON
Wrong! IS UNIQUE!
1s
 HUND’S RULE OF
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY

Electrons when distributed among the

orbitals of the same energy will tend to
have maximum spin (SINGLY FIRST
BEFORE PAIRING)

Right !

Wrong!
2px 2py 2pz
 ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION

1 H1s ↑
n= 1 l=0 ml= 0 ms= + 1/2
4Be 1s ↑↓
2s ↑↓ 1 0 0 - 1/2
7 N1s ↑↓

2s ↑↓ 2p ↑ 2p ↑ 2p ↑

2 1 -1 + 1/2
 Test yourself !

Write the electronic configuration and determine

the quantum numbers of the last entering
electron for the ff elements:

2 He, 3Li, 5B, 6C, 8O, 9F, 10 Ne, 23V

What is the atomic number of an element whose

quantum numbers are: n = 4, l = 3, ml = -1, ms = -1/2