Chapter 16

Structural
Dynamics
10/14/08 Dynamic Analysis 1

subjected to a time
dependent load.
k
F(t)
m

Free-body diagram of the
mass.
T = kx F(t) ma = mx
=
m m

F( t ) − k x = m x
m x + k x = F( t )

Solution of D.E. is sum
of homogeneous and
particular solutions:
Homogeneous :
F( t ) = 0
m x + k x = 0
Let :
k
ω =2
m
Then :
x + ω x = 0
2
ω 2 is the natural circular frequency

2π
τ=
ω
τ is the period (measured in seconds)

Displacement due to simple harmonic motion.
τ
xm

One
Dimensional
Bar Element

Step 1 - Select Element Type
d̂1x 1 2 d̂ 2 x
x̂
f̂1ex ( t ) f̂ 2ex ( t )
L
E - modulus of elasticity
A - cross-sectional area
ρ - mass density

Step 2 - Select a
Displacement Function
û = a1 + a 2 x̂
û = N 1d̂1x + N 2d̂ 2 x
x̂
N1 = 1 −
L
x̂
N2 =
L
Step 3 - Define
Strain/Displacement and
Stress/Strain Relationships
∂
{εx } = = [ B] d̂
û
∂x̂
{}
[ B] = − 1 1 
 L L
{} d̂1x 
d̂ =  
d̂ 2 x 
{σ} = [ D]{εx } = [ D][ B] {d̂}
Step 4 - Derive Element
Stiffness and Mass
Matrices and Equations
With time dependent loading
f̂1x ≠ f̂ 2 x

Newton’s Second Law
 
f = ma
NODAL EQUILIBRIUM
EQUATIONS
∂ d̂1x 2
f̂ = f̂1x + m1
e
1x
∂t 2
∂ d̂ 2 x 2
f̂ e
2x = f̂ 2 x + m 2
∂t 2

m1 and m2 are obtained by
lumping the total mass of the
bar equally at the two nodes
ρAL
m1 =
2
ρAL
m2 =
2
Lumped Mass Model
d̂1x 1 2 d̂ 2 x
m1 x̂ m2
f̂1ex ( t ) f̂ 2ex ( t )
L

Equilibrium in Matrix
Form
 ∂ d̂1x 
f̂1ex  f̂1x  m1 
0  ∂ t  2 
 e  =  +    
f̂ 2 x  f̂ 2 x   0 m 2   ∂ d̂ 2 x 
 ∂ t 
2

Equilibrium in Matrix
Form
{ } [ ]{ }
f̂ ( t ) = k̂ d̂ + [ m̂ ] d̂
e 
{}
Defining Terms
 1 − 1
[k ] = 
AE Element Stiffness Matrix
L − 1 1 
ρAL 1 0
[m] = Element Lumped Mass Matrix
2 0 1
{}d̂ Nodal Displacements
{} ∂ d̂
d̂ =
2
{} Nodal Accelerations
∂ t2

Consistent Mass Matrix
{ } 
X = −ρ û
e
{}
{fb } = ∫∫∫[ N] { X} dV
T
{fb } = −∫∫∫ ρ[ N ] T
{}
û dV
V

{ û} = [ N ] { d̂}
{û} = [ N] d̂
 
{}
{û} = [ N] d̂
 
{}
{fb } = −∫∫∫ ρ[ N] [ N] d̂ dV
 T
{}
{}
V
{fb } = −[m̂] d̂

[m̂] = ∫∫∫ ρ[ N] [ N] dV T

Bar Element
[m̂] = ∫∫∫ ρ[ N] [ N ] dV
T
1 − x̂ 
 L   x̂
[m̂] = ∫∫∫ ρ x̂  1 − x̂  dV
V   L L 
 L 
L 1 −
x̂ 
 L   x̂
[m̂] = ρ A ∫  x̂  1 − x̂  dx̂
0  L L 
 L 
Bar Element

L 1 −
x̂  − x̂  1 − x̂  x̂ 
 L  L 1 
[m̂] = ρ A ∫   L  L  dx̂
 x̂  x̂   x̂  x̂  
0  1 −   
  L  L   L  L  
ρ A L 2 1
[m̂] =  
6 1 2

STEP 5 - Assemble the Global
Equations and Apply B.C.’s
{ F( t )} = [ K ] { d} + [ M ] {d}


{ F( t )} = [ K ] { d} + [ M ] {d}

Now must solve coupled set

of ODE’s instead of set of
linear algebraic equations!

[m] = ∫∫∫ ρ[ N] [ N] dV T

Beam Element
ŷ , v̂
φ̂1 , m̂ 1
1 x̂ 2 φ̂ 2 , m̂ 2
L
f̂1y , d̂ 1y f̂ 2y , d̂ 2y

Shape Functions
N1 =
L3
1
( 2x̂ 3 − 3x̂ 2 L + L3 )
N2 =
1 3
L3
( x̂ L − 2x̂ 2 L2 + x̂L3 )
N3 =
1
L3
( − 2x̂ 3 + 3x̂ 2 L )
N4 =
L
1 3
3
( x̂ L − x̂ 2 L2 )

Shape Functions
1.000
N1 N3
0.500
N2
L
0.000
0 N4
-0.500

[ m] = ∫∫∫ ρ[ N] [ N] dV
T
 156 22L 54 − 13L 

 22L 4L2
13L 2 
− 3L 
[m] = 
m
420  54 13L 156 − 22L 
 2 
− 13L − 3L − 22L 4L 
2

Lumped Mass Matrix
1 0 0 0 
 αL 2

m  0 0 0 
[ m ] = 0 210
0 1 0 

2
0 αL 
2
0 0
 210 

Lumped Mass Matrix
2nd and 4th terms account for rotary inertia.

α = 0 if this is ignored.
α = 17.5 if mass moment of inertia of bar
spinning about one end is selected
2
 m  L 
  
 2  2 
I=
3
Consistent Mass Matrix -
CST
Q 0 
[ m] =  
 0 Q
 2 1 1 u1
m
[ Q] = 1 2 1 u 2
12
1 1 2 u 3
For each degree of freedom

CST
2 0 1 0 1 0
0 2 0 1 0 1

ρAt 1 0 2 0 1 0
[ m] =  
12  0 1 0 2 0 1
1 0 1 0 2 0
 
 0 1 0 1 0 2
Lumped Mass Matrix -
CST
Q 0 
[ m] =  
 0 Q
1 0 0 u 1
m
[ Q] = 0 0 1 u 2
3
0 0 1 u 3

Lumped Mass Matrix -
CST
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0

ρAt 0 0 1 0 0 0
[m] =  
3 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 1
Quad
Q 0 
[m] =  0 Q 
 
4 2 1 2
2 4 2 1 
[ Q] = m 
36 1 2 4 2
 
2 1 2 4
m = ρAt

Quad
4 0 2 0 1 0 2 0
0 4 0 2 0 1 0 2

2 0 4 0 2 0 1 0
 
m 0 2 0 4 0 2 0 1
[ m] = 
36 1 0 2 0 4 0 2 0
 
0 1 0 2 0 4 0 2
2 0 1 0 2 0 4 0
 
0 2 0 1 0 2 0 4

Hybrid Methods
Attempts have been made to combine

consistent and lumped mass approaches
to achieve some of the benefits of each!

HRZ Lumping
 Hinton, Rock, and Zienkiewicz
 Compute the diagonal terms of
consistent mass matrix.
 Compute total mass of element, m
 Compute s by adding diagonal
coefficients associated with
translational D-O-F that are in same
direction.
 Scale all diagonal coefficients by
multiplying by m/s
HRZ - Bar Element
ρ A L 2 1 
[ m̂] =  
6 1 2 
m = ρAL
ρAL
s = 4×
6
m 3
=
s 2
ρ A L 3 0
[ m̂] =
6 0 3
HRZ - Beam Element
 156 22L 54 − 13L 
 22L 4 L 2
13L − 3L 2 
[m] = m  
420  54 13L 156 − 22L 
 2 
− 13L − 3L − 22L 4L 
2
m = ρAL
ρAL
s = 312 ×
420
m = 420
s 312

HRZ - Beam Element
 420 
 312 × 156 0 0 0   39 
 420   
 0 × 4 L2 0 0   L2

m  m
[ m̂ ] = 312 =  
420  420  78  39 
 0 0 × 156 0 
312  
   L2

 420 2  
0 0 0 × 4L
 312 

HRZ – Quadratic Serendipity
3 1
76 36
16 8
76 36
3x3 2x2
Gauss Rule Gauss Rule

HRZ – Quadratic Lagrangian
1 1
36 36
4 16 16 4
36 36 36 36
3x3 2x2
Gauss Rule Gauss Rule

% error in natural frequencies of a thick
simply-supported plate.
Half of the plate modeled with 8-noded
24 d-o-f elements
Mode Type of Mass Matrix
m n Consistent (%) HRz Lumping (%) Ad Hoc Lumping (%)
1 1 0.11 0.32 0.32
2 1 0.4 0.45 0.45
2 2 0.35 2.75 4.12
3 1 5.18 0.05 5.75
3 2 4.68 2.96 10.15
3 3 13.78 5.18 19.42
4 2 16.88 1.53 31.7

Optimal Lumping
 Only translational d-o-f
 Based on consistent mass matrix
 Use appropriate quadrature rule
 Chose integration points to
coincide with nodal locations
 [m] will be diagonal

 Let p be the highest order
complete polynomial in shape
function N
 let m be the highest order
derivative in strain energy (m =
1 elasticity, m = 2 bending)
 Chose quadrature rule with
degree of precision 2(p-m)

Three noded bar element
p=2
m=1
2(p-m) = 2
Three point quadrature rule.
Newton -Cotes has points at the nodes.
(Simpson’ Rule)
b
1 4 b+a 1 
∫a f (x)dx = ( b − a )  6 f ( a ) + 6 f  2  + 6 f ( b ) 
1
m ij = ρA ∫ N i N jdx = ∫ N i N j J dξ
−1
L
J=
2
m ij = ρA
L
( 1 − ( − 1) )  1 N i ( − 1) N j ( − 1) + 4 N i ( 0) N j ( 0) + 1 N i ( 1) N j ( 1) 
2 6 6 6 
i ≠ j m ij = 0
1 0 0 1 3 2
ρAL  
[ m] = 0 1 0
6  
0 0 4
Serendipity
1
−
12
1
3

Lagrangian
1
36
4 1
9 9

Mass Matrices
 Product [m]{a} must yield the correct total
force on an element (F = ma) when {a}
represents a rigid-body translational
acceleration.
 Consistent mass matrices, [m] and [M] are
positive definite.
 Lumped mass matrix is positive semi-definite
when zero terms appear on main diagonal.
 Lumped mass matrix is indefinite when
negative terms appear on main diagonal.

Mass Matrices
 Special treatment may be needed
to handle the last two cases.

Best Type ?
1. Consistent matrices usually

more accurate for flexural
problems.
2. Consistent matrices give
upper bounds on natural
frequencies.

Best Type ?
1. Lumped matrices usually give natural
frequencies less than exact values.
2. Simpler to form.
3. Occupy less storage.
4. Require less computational effort.
5. Usually more important in time-history
than in vibration problems.

Damping
1. Structural damping is not viscous.
2. Due to mechanisms such as hysteresis
and slip in connections.
3. Mechanisms not well understood.
4. Awkward to incorporate into structural
dynamic equations.
5. Makes equations computationally
difficult.
6. Effects usually approximated by
viscous damping.
Types of Damping Models
 Phenomenological Damping
Methods (models actual dissipative
mechanisms)
➲ Elastic-Plastic Hysteresis Loss
➲ Structural Joint Friction
➲ Material Micro-cracking
 Spectral Damping Methods
➲ Introduce Viscous Damping
➲ Relies on Fraction of Critical Damping
Critical Damping
ξ Fraction of Critical Damping

ξ = 1 Critical Damping
Critical Damping marks the transition between

oscillatory and non- oscillatory response of a
structure

Critical Damping Ratio
0.5% ≤ ξ ≤ 5% Steel Piping

2% ≤ ξ ≤ 15% Bolted or riveted steel structures
2% ≤ ξ ≤ 15% Reinforced or Prestresses Concrete
Actual value may depend on stress level.

Rayleigh or Proportional
Damping
Damping matrix is a linear combination of

stiffness and mass matrices:
[ C] = α [ K ] + β [ M ]
Rayleigh or Proportional
Damping
[C] is orthogonal damping matrix.
Modes may be uncoupled by eigenvectors
associated with undamped problem.
1 β
ξ = αω− 
2 ω

If critical damping ratio is
known at two frequencies
then:
1 β
ξ = αω− 
2 ω
( ξ 2 ω 2 − ξ 1 ω1 )
α=2
(
ω 2 − ω1
2 2
)
( ξ 1 ω 2 − ξ 2 ω1 )
β = 2 ω1 ω 2
(ω 2
2 −ω 2
1 )
Natural Frequencies and Mode
Shapes
Undamped, Unforced Response
{ D} = { D } sin ωt
{ D } = ω{ D } cos ωt
{ D } = − ω { D } sin ωt
2
{ D} amplitudes of nodal d - o - f
ω circular frequency
ω
f = ( Hz )
2π
Results in generalized eigenproblem
( [ K ] − λ [ M ] ) { D } = { 0}
λ=ω 2

Trivial Solution:
[ K ] − λ[ M] ≠0
{ D} = 0

Nontrivial Solution:
[ K ] − λ[ M ] =0
{ D} ≠ 0

λi ≡ Roots of Characteristic
Polynomial (eigenvalues)
{ D} i ≡ Associated Eigenvectors

ω i Natural Frequencies
{D} i Normal Modes

Natural Frequencies
 [K] and [M] n x n then there are n
eigenvalues and n eigenvectors
 [K] and [M] positive definite then
eigenvalues are all positive
 Mii = 0 infinite eigenvalue
 Mii < 0 negative eigenvalue - imaginary
frequency
 Use condensation to remove ith equation if
Mii = 0

Rayleigh Quotient
λ=
{ D} [ K ]{ D}
T
{ D} [ M ]{ D}
T
[ K ] symmetric
[ M ] positive definite
{ D} th
approximat ion to i eigenvector
λ approximat ion to i th eigenvalue
Rayleigh Quotient
{ v} [ K ]{ v}
T
λ min ≤ ≤ λ max
{ v} [ M ]{ v}
T
λ min smallest eigenvalue

λ max l arg est eigenvalue

Modal Methods
When [K], [C], [M] are known and time

independent the problem is linear.
[ M ] { D} + [ C ] { D} + [ K ] { D} = R
  {
ext
}
{ D ( 0 ) } , { D ( 0 ) } given as initial conditions

Modal Methods
Assume orthogonal damping, such as
Rayleigh Damping. Modes can be uncoupled:
{ D} [ M ] { D}
T
i j =0
{ D} [ K ] { D}
T
i j =0
{ D} [ C] { D}
T
i j =0
i≠j
{ D} [ M ] { D} = 1
T
i i
{ D} [ K ] { D} = ω
T
i i
2
i
{ D} [ C] { D} = 2ξ ω
T
i i i i

Eigenvectors are linearly
independent
[ φ] = matrix of eigenvectors
(mode shapes)
{ D} = [ φ]{ Z}
{ Z} modal amplitudes

Substitute into:
  {
[ M ] { D } + [ C ] { D } + [ K ] { D} = R ext
}
{ D ( 0 ) } , { D ( 0 ) } given

[ M ] [ φ] { Z} + [ C ] [ φ] { Z} + [ K ] [ φ] { Z} = R
  {ext
}
[ φ ] { Z ( 0 ) } = { D ( 0 ) }
[ φ ] { Z ( 0 )} = { D ( 0 ) } given

Mode Displacement
Method
  [ ]
[ I ] { Z } + [ ξ ] { Z } + ω { Z} = { p}
 2

Mode Displacement
Method
Pre-multiply by [φ]T
[ φ] T
[ M ] [ φ] { Z } + [ φ] [ C ] [ φ] { Z }
 T
+ [ φ]
T
[ K ] [ φ] { Z} = [ φ] { R }
T ext
[ φ] { Z ( 0 ) } = { D ( 0 ) }
[ φ] { Z ( 0 ) } = { D ( 0 ) } given

Mode Displacement
Method
[ φ] [ M ] [ φ] = [ I ]
T
[ φ] [ C] [ φ] = [ ξ ]
T
[ φ] [ K ] [ φ] = [ ω ]
T 2

Mode Displacement
Method
  [ ]
[ I ] { Z } + [ ξ ] { Z } + ω { Z} = { p}
 2

Modes Uncouple:
  2
[ ]
[ I ] { Z} + [ ξ ] { Z} + ω { Z} = { Z}

Z + 2 ξ ω Z  + ω 2 Z = p i = 1, n
i i i i i i

[ φ ] { Z ( 0 ) } = { D ( 0 ) }
[ φ ] { Z ( 0 )} = { D ( 0 ) }
[ φ ] [ M ] [ φ ] { Z ( 0 ) } = [ φ ] [ M ] { D ( 0 ) }
T  T
[ I ] { Z ( 0 ) } = [ φ ] [ M ] { D ( 0 ) }
 T
{ Z ( 0 ) } = [ φ ] [ M ] { D ( 0 ) }
 T
{ Z ( 0 )} = [ φ ] [ M ] { D ( 0 ) }
T

Reduce size of problem:
m << n eq
m
{ D } = ∑ { φ} i Z i
i =1

Error Estimate:
{ R } − [ M ] { D } − [ C ] { D } − [ K ] { D}
ext
e( t ) =
{R } ext
For an accurate analysis :

e ( t ) ≤ 1%

In many structural dynamics
problems, more modes
participate in the quasi-static
response than in the dynamic
response. For a small m value,
the mode displacement method
may have difficulty in predicting
the quasi-static response.
Mode Acceleration method
Method
  [ ]
[ I ] { Z } + [ ξ ] { Z } + ω { Z} = { p}
 2

Modal transformation only on
inertial and damping terms
[ M ] [ φ ] { Z } + [ C ] [ φ ] { Z } + [ K ] { D} = R
  {
ext
}
[ φ ] { Z ( 0 ) } = { D ( 0 ) }
[ φ ] { Z ( 0 )} = { D ( 0 ) } given

[K ] {D} = {R ext } − [M ][φ]{Z
 } − [C][ φ]{Z
}
{D} = [K ] {R } − [K ] ([M ][φ]{Z

−1 ext −1  } − [C][ φ]{Z
 })

[ φ] [ M ] [ φ] = [ I ]
T
[ M ] [ φ] = [ φ] −T

{ D} = [ K ] { R } − [ K ]
−1 ext −1
( [ φ ] { Z } − [ C ] [ φ ] { Z } )
−T

[ φ] [ K ] [ φ] = [ ω ]
T 2
[ φ] [ K ] [ φ] [ ω ] = [ I ]
T 2 −1
[ K ] [ φ] [ ω ] = [ φ] [ I ] = [ φ]
2 −1 −T −T
[ φ] [ ω ] = [ K ] [ φ]
2 −1 −1 −T

{ D} = [ K ] {R } − [ K ] [ φ]
−1 ext −1 −T
{Z} + [ K ] [C][ φ]{Z }
 −1
{ D} = [ K ] {R } − [ φ] [ω ] {Z} + [ K ] [ C][ φ]{Z }

−1 ext 2 −1  −1

{ D} = [ K ] {R } − [ K ] [ φ] {Z } + [ K ] −1[ C][ φ]{Z }
−1 ext −1 −T
{ D} = [ K ] {R } − [ φ] [ω ] {Z} + [ K ] [ φ] [ φ] [ C][ φ]{Z }

−1 ext 2 −1  −1 −T T
{ D} = [ K ] {R } − [ φ] [ω ] {Z} + [ φ] [ω ] [ ξ]{Z }
−1 ext 2 −1  2 −1

{ D} = [ K ] { R } − [ φ ] [ ω
−1 ext 2 −1
] ( { Z } + [ ξ ] { Z } )
 1  2ξ i  
{ D} = [ K ] { R }
m
−1 ext
− ∑ { φ} i  2 Z i + Z i 
i =1  ωi ωi 
First term on RHS represents quasi-static

response, the second term represents
corrections for inertia and viscous effects.
Solve for Z terms as before:
Z + 2 ξ ω Z + ω2 Z = p i = 1, n
i i i i i i

Mass Condensation
 Reduces number of d-o-f.
 Reduces expense of computing
eigenvalues.
 Detrimental to accuracy.
 Not used with optimal lumping.

Guyan Reduction
  K mm K ms   M mm M ms    D m   0 
  − λ   = 
 KT 
  ms K ss   M Tms M ss    D s   0 
m - master degree of freedom

s - slave degree of freedom

Guyan Reduction
m - master degree of freedom
s - slave degree of freedom
Basic Assumption:
For lowest frequency modes the inertial
forces on slave d-o-f are less important
than elastic forces transmitted by master
d-o-f. Thus we ignore all mass except Mmm

Guyan Reduction
  K mm K ms   M mm 0    D m   0 
  − λ   = 
 KT 
  ms K ss   0 0    D s   0 
{ D } = −[ K ] [ K ] { D }
s ss
−1
ms
T
m

Guyan Reduction
 D m 
  = [ T]{ Dm }
 D s 
 I 
[ T ] =  −1 T 
 − K ss K ms 

Guyan Reduction
( [ K r ] − λ [ M r ] ) { D m } = { 0}
[ K r ] = [ T] [ K ] [ T]
T
[ Mr ] = [ T] [ M] [ T]
T
Both [Kr] and [Mr] are generally full.

[Mr] contains both mass and stiffness terms
Guyan Reduction
[ Cr ] = [ T] [ C] [ T]
T
{R r } = [ T ] {R }
ext T ext
[ M r ]{D m } + [ Cr ]{D m } + [ K r ]{ D m } = {R r }
  ext

Compute Slaves
{D }
s i
= − [ K ss − λ i M ss ]
−1
[K T
ms − λiM T
ms ]{ D }
m i

Choosing Master D-O-F
 Choose d-o-f where inertia is most
important
 These are characterized by large mass
to stiffness ratios.
 Each d-o-f that has a time varying
applied load should be chosen.
 Master d-o-f should not be clustered.
 Process can be automated

Process for Choosing Master D-O-
F
 Scan diagonal coefficients of [K] and

[M].
 Choose d-o-f for which Kii/Mii is largest.
 This becomes first slave.
 Condense [K] and [M] by one order.
 Repeat process using condensed
matrices till a user specified number of
d-o-f remain.
 These are Master d-o-f chosen in near
optimal way. Dynamic Analysis
10/14/08 109
Number of Master D-O-F
 Choose cut-off frequency ωc
 Take this to be about three times the
highest frequency of interest.
 Terminate selection of master d-o-f when
Kii/Mii < ωc2
 Can combine manual and automatic
selection (i.e. Choose each d-o-f that has a
time varying applied load and then
automatically select others.)
 Number of Master d-o-f may be 10% - 20%
of total d-o-f.

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Structural

10/14/08 Dynamic Analysis 1

10/14/08 Dynamic Analysis 2

10/14/08 Dynamic Analysis 3

10/14/08 Dynamic Analysis 4

ω 2 is the natural circular frequency

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With time dependent loading

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Now must solve coupled set

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 156 22L 54 − 13L 

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2nd and 4th terms account for rotary inertia.

For each degree of freedom

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Attempts have been made to combine

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1. Consistent matrices usually

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ξ Fraction of Critical Damping

Critical Damping marks the transition between

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0.5% ≤ ξ ≤ 5% Steel Piping

Actual value may depend on stress level.

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Damping matrix is a linear combination of

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