CN Part2 2006

Computer Networks
Part 2 : Physical Layer

Signal in Time Domain
• Signal in time domain
 physical quantity that varies in time
 f:R R, t f(t)
• f can be discrete (if range is discrete) or continuous
• f can be periodic with period T if f(t+T) = f(t)
Volt Volt
time time
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1st Bachelor Informatica
Signal in Frequency Domain (1)
• Sinusoid function
 s:R R , s(t) = A sin(2πft + θ)
• A : amplitude
• f : frequency (f=1/T, with T : period) (unit : Hertz Hz)
∀ θ : phase
• Fourier analysis
 for a periodic function g : R R (period T)
∞ ∞
1
g(t ) = c +
2 ∑
n =1
a n sin( 2πnft ) + ∑
n =1
bn cos( 2πnft )
 f=1/T fundamental frequency, an amplitude of the sine of the n-th

harmonic
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• The following entities hold :
T 0, k ≠ n
∫ sin( 2πkft ) sin( 2πnft )dt = T
, k=n
0 2
T
∫ sin(2πkft ) cos(2πnft )dt = 0

0
• This leads to the coefficients
T T T
2 2 2
an =
T ∫
0
g ( t ) sin( 2πnft )dt , bn =
T ∫
0
g( t ) cos( 2πnft )dt , c =
T ∫ g(t )dt
0
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• Frequency domain function
 G(f) : constituent frequencies of the signal
 Example
g ( t ) = sin( 2πft ) + 1 / 3 sin 3( 2πft ) + 1 / 5 sin 5( 2πft )

• spectrum : range of frequencies ({ f , 3f , 5f })
• width of spectrum = absolute bandwidth ( 4f )
• G(f) = 1 ; G(3f) = 1/3 ; G(5f) = 1/5
• effective bandwidth
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1 / 5 sin( 5πft )
sin( 2πft )
g( t ) = sin( 2π ft ) + 1 / 3 sin 3( 2π ft ) + 1 / 5 sin 5( 2π ft )
1 / 3 sin( 3πft )
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• Example
 character b : 01100010
 Coefficients of Fourier analysis
1 πn 3πn 6πn 7πn

an = (cos − cos + cos − cos )
πn 4 4 4 4
1 3πn πn 7πn 6πn
bn = (sin − sin + sin − sin )
πn 4 4 4 4
6
c=
8
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Relation Data Rate / Bandwidth (1)
• Example
 Consider square wave originating from sequence 1010101… where
1: +1 and 0: -1.
 Duration of pulse is 1/2 f, and let f = 1 MHz. Hence the fundamental
period T = 10-6 = 1 µsec
 Duration of a bit = 0.5 µsec, data rate = 2 Mbit/s
 Approximation of this square wave by
g ( t ) = sin( 2πft ) + 1 / 3 sin 3( 2πft ) + 1 / 5 sin 5( 2πft )
 Required bandwidth : 5 x 106 - 106 = 4 106 (4 MHz)
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Relation Data Rate / Bandwidth (2)
• Example (2)
 Assume fundamental frequency f = 2 MHz
 Approximation of the square wave by
g( t ) = sin( 2π ft ) + 1 / 3 sin 3( 2π ft )
 required bandwidth : 3 x 2 x106 - 2 x 106 = 4 106 (4 MHz)
 Duration of a bit = 0.25 µsec, data rate = 4 Mbit/s
 Same bandwidth, higher data rate.
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Power of signal
• Definitions :
 S : power of signal
 R power of the noise
 relative power P = 10 log10 (S/R) (decibels)
• Example :
 Power to noise ratio S/R = 10, then relative power P = 10 log10 (10) =
10 dB
 Power to noise ratio S/R = 100, then relative power P = 10 log10 (100)
= 20 dB
 Power to noise ratio S/R = 0.5, then relative power P = 10 log10 (1/2) =
-3 dB
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Transmission Impairments (1)
• Attenuation and attenuation distortion
 attenuation : energy falls off with distance (amplifiers introduce
accumulation of noise, repeater)
 attenuation increases with the frequency. Amplifiers should amplify
high frequencies more than low frequencies.
• Delay Distortion
 center frequencies are faster than components at edges of the band :
inter-symbol interference
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Transmission Impairments (2)
• Noise
 Thermal noise : thermal agitation of electrons
 Inter-modulation noise : two signals with frequencies f and g create
new signals with frequencies n(f+g) and n(f-g)
 Cross-talk : coupling between signal paths (e.g. nearby twisted pairs)
 Impulse noise : irregular pulse of short duration.
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Nyquist and Shannon
• Noise free channel : Formula of Nyquist
C = 2 W log2 M
 C : bit rate (bits/s)
 W : bandwidth medium (Hz)
 M : number of signal levels
• Formula of Shannon
C = W log2 (1 + S/R)
 W : bandwidth medium (Hz)
 S : signal power
 R : noise power
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Transmission Media (1)
• Twisted pair
 two isolated twisted copper wires
 usage : local loop
 rate : 9.6 kbit/s (local loop), 64 kbit/s (ISDN), 10 Mbit/s ADSL
 susceptible to noise
• Coaxial cable
 hollow outer cylinder with single inner wire
 usage : long distance phone, CATV, LAN
 rate : 100’s Mbit/s
 protected against noise
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• Optical Fiber
 glass or plastic fiber with LED or laser diode and foto diode
 usage : long distance phone/data, LAN, B-ISDN
 rate : Gbit/s
 no interference, low attenuation
• Terestrial Microwave
 usage : long distance phone, short p2p, TV trans.
 Antenna h, distance d km then d=7.3√4/3 h ; example h=100m, then
d=82 km
 frequencies strictly regulated
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• Satellite communications
 satellite acts as microwave repeater (relay station)
 GEOs : geo-stationary orbit (35.784 km)
 LEOs : low earth orbit
 uplink and downlink different frequency band
 satellite operates on many channels
 usage : TV distribution, long distance phone, private business
networks
 Delay due to distance : 240 -300 msec
 complex error and flow control and echo suppressing
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Analog Digital Data Transmission
• Data, signaling and transmission
 data : entity with meaning (video, voice)
 signaling : act of propagating signal over medium
 transmission : communication of data by propagating and processing
of signals
• Analog and Digital Data
 analog data : continuous values
• voice : between 20 Hz and 20 kHz
• video : electron beam scanning the surface of the screen from left
to right and from top to bottom; intensity of the beam produces the
brightness of a point on the screen
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Analog Digital Data/Signals
• Analog and digital data
 digital data : discrete values
• character in ASCII code (character = 7 bits + parity bit)
• Analog and digital signals
 analog signal : continuously varying electromagnetic wave which
propagates over medium (e.g. acoustic signal is converted in
electromagnetic signal 300 Hz - 3400 Hz)
 digital signal : sequence of voltage pulses (e.g. two voltage levels to
represent 0 and 1)
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Analog Digital Transmission
• Analog and digital transmission
 Analog transmission : transmission of analog signals - need for
amplifiers
 Digital transmission : transmission of digital signals - need for
repeaters
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Data Encoding (1)
• Encoding vs. modulation
g(t) digital x(t) digital

or analog g(t)
encoder decoder
g(t) digital
or analog s(t) analog g(t)
Modulator Demodulator
fc
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Data Encoding (2)
• Digital data - digital signal
Each bit is encoded into a voltage pulse.
 Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ)
• 1: negative voltage,
• 0: positive voltage
 Nonreturn-to-Zero Inverted on Ones (NZRI)
• 1: transition from low to high or from high to low
• 0: no transition
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Data Encoding (3)
• Digital data - digital signal
 Multilevel Binary
• Bipolar-AMI
 0 : no signal
 1 : alternating positive and negative pulse
• Pseudoternary
 1 : no signal
 0 : alternating positive and negative pulse
 Biphase
• Manchester coding scheme
 transition in the middle of a bit period
 1 : transition from low to high
 0 : transition from high to low
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Data Encoding (4)
• Differential Manchester
 transition at the middle of bit period for clocking purposes
 1 : absence of transition at the beginning of bit period
 0 : transition at the beginning of bit period
 Scrambling
• Bipolar with 8-zeros substitution (B8ZS) : in AMI 8 consecutive
zeros
 last pulse + : 8 zeros replaced by 000+-0-+
 last pulse - : 8 zeros replaced by 000-+0+-
 this code violates the AMI code : recognized by the receiver
• High-density bipolar-3 zeros (HDB3) : in AMI 4 consecutive zeros
are replaced by 000+ and 000- alternatively
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Data Encoding (5)
• Digital Data - Analog Signal
Example : digital data through public telephone use of modem to convert
digital signal in analog signal in frequency range of 300 to 3400 Hz
 Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
Two binary values are represented by two different amplitudes (1:

non-zero amplitude, 0 :zero amplitude)
s( t ) = A cos( 2πf c t + ϑc ) : binary 1

= 0 : binary 0
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Data Encoding (6)
 Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
Two binary values represented by two frequencies
s( t ) = A cos( 2πf 1 t + ϑc ) : binary 1

= A cos( 2πf 2 t + ϑc ) : binary 0
 Phase-shift keying (PSK)

0: sending signal with same phase as previous, 1: sending signal
with opposite phase to the preceding one
s( t ) = A cos( 2πf c t + π ) : binary 1

= A cos( 2πf c t ) : binary 0
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Data Encoding (7)
Using PSK : let each signal element represent two bits
π
s( t ) = A cos( 2πf c t + ) : 11
4
3π
= A cos( 2πf c t + ) : 10
4
5π
= A cos( 2πf c t + ) : 00
4
7π
= A cos( 2πf c t + ) : 01
4
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Data Encoding (8)
• Analog Data - Digital Signal
 Pulse-Code Modulation
If a signal f(t) is sampled at regular time instants and a rate higher

than twice the highest significant signal frequency, then the
original function f(t) may be reconstructed from the samples.
Steps of PCM :
 PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation : samples of the analog
signal
 Approximate the amplitude of each sample by n bits (e.g. if
n=3 then 8 levels are possible)
Voice : 4000 Hz, 8000 samples/sec, n=8 (256 levels) then
the digital data stream is 64 kbit/s
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PCM : Overview
Transmission/
Switching output
input Low-pass Quantizer Low-pass
presampling sampler and decoder recovery
filter encoder filter
Components :
• low-pass filter
• sampler
• quantizer and encoder
• digital transmission or switching system
• decoder
• low-pass recovery filter
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PCM : Sampling
• Telephone signal with frequency band 300 - 3400 Hz (after low-pass filter)
• Nyquist : sampling frequency at least two times maximum of frequency of
analog signal
• Sampling frequency at 8 kHz
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PCM : Quantization
Linear quantum steps Logarithmic quantum steps
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Data Encoding (9)
• Analog Data - Analog Signal
Modulation for two reasons : FDM and higher frequency leads to more
effectiveness
 Amplitude modulation (AM)
 Angle modulation (PM and FM)
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Data Encoding (10)
 Amplitude modulation
• if x(t) is input signal then AM with modulation index na and carrier
cos( 2πf c t )
s( t ) = [1 + na x ( t )] cos( 2πf c t )
• Example : x ( t ) = cos( 2πf m t ) then s(t) is given by a signal

with a component at the original carrier frequency and two
additional components spaced fm from the carrier
na na
s( t ) = cos( 2πf c t ) + cos 2π ( f c − f m ) + cos 2π ( f c + f m )
2 2
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Data Encoding (11)
 Angle Modulation (AM)
If m(t) is a signal then AM results in a signal s(t)
s( t ) = Ac cos[2πf c t + φ ( t )]
with φ(t) given by :
∀ φ(t) = np m(t) : Phase Modulation (PM)
∀ φ’(t) = nf m(t) : Frequency Modulation (FM)
Besides the original carrier frequency fc also the multiples of fc -

nfm are added.
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Multiplexing Techniques
• Multiplexing : N input lines merged into one output line
• Multiplexing techniques
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
• Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
• Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing
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Synchronous Time Division (1)
Input A Input A
Input B 4 to 1
Output Input B
Input C data
selector
Input D Input C
Input D
S1 S2
Gate A
2 bit
counter
Gate B
S1 S2 output
Gate C
0 0 A
Gate D
0 1 B
1 0 C Output
1 1 D
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Synchronous Time Division (2)
• Deterministic sequential allocation of time intervals (slots) to each input
line
• Each user obtains one slot in a frame
• If bit rate of each of the N input channel is k bits/s then the output rate
needs to be R= Nxk
• Advantages
 no delay, no delay jitter, no buffers (hence, no loss)
• Disadvantage
 possible waste of resources
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Asynchronous Time Division (1)
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Asynchronous Time Division (2)
• Advantage
 no waste of resources (statistical effect)
• Disadvantage
 buffers required : possible loss, delay, delay jitter
• The output capacity can be smaller than the sum of the input capacities :
multiplexing gain
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STDM vs. ATDM
STDM
frame
Output capacity = ∑ Input capacity
ATDM
Output capacity ≤ ∑ Input capacity

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Statistical Multiplexer (1)
• Statistical multiplexer
 N input lines of 10 kbit/sec
 Packets have constant length 1000 bits
 Sources are active during 1/2 of the time
 Output line: 1 Mbit/sec
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• Determine N when
 STDM is used i.e. output rate is the sum of the output rates (without
buffering)
 statistical multiplexing is used with the constraint that E[W]<10 ms.
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• Service process:
 time to transmit a packet (=slot): 1 10 -3 sec
• Arrival process:
 on a single line when active: 10 pkt/sec
 on a single line: 5 pkt/sec
 Superposition: 5N pkt/sec
 arrival rate: 5 N 10-3 pkt/slot
• Determination of N
 STDM system: N=100
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• Statistical multiplexing
 Model for statistical multiplexer: M/D/1 queue
 Mean waiting time in M/D/1 system
E[W] = E [ B ]ρ
2(1 − ρ )
 Gain due to statistical multiplexing : 1.9
E[W ] ≤ 10 ms ⇔ N = 190.
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Switching Techniques
• Basic building block : N inputs, M outputs
• Switching Techniques
 Circuit switching
 Message switching
 Packet switching
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Circuit Switching (1)
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Circuit Switching (2)
• CS communication involves three phases
 connection set-up
 communication (data transfer)
 connection disconnect
• Advantages
 network is wire-like
 transfer of data at fixed rate
 no loss due to buffer overflow
 fixed delay (no jitter) usually small
 routing algorithm is activated only at set-up
• Disadvantages
 Possible waste of resources (in case of bursty traffic)
 Circuit set-up causes delay
 All resources must be available at set-up
 Local overload may cause large blocking in network
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Packet Switching
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Switching Techniques
Circuit switching Packet switching
fixed path connection-less/connection-oriented
reservation of resources no dedicated resources
waste of resources resource usage on demand
propagation delay fixed variable delay and delay variation
no buffer overflow (loss) possible buffer overflow (loss)
no error/flow control need for error/flow control
routing at set-up routing for every packet
typical: POTS typical: DATA
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CN Part2 2006

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Computer Networks

Part 2 : Physical Layer

 f=1/T fundamental frequency, an amplitude of the sine of the n-th

∫ sin(2πkft ) cos(2πnft )dt = 0

g ( t ) = sin( 2πft ) + 1 / 3 sin 3( 2πft ) + 1 / 5 sin 5( 2πft )

g( t ) = sin( 2π ft ) + 1 / 3 sin 3( 2π ft ) + 1 / 5 sin 5( 2π ft )

1 πn 3πn 6πn 7πn

g ( t ) = sin( 2πft ) + 1 / 3 sin 3( 2πft ) + 1 / 5 sin 5( 2πft )

 Required bandwidth : 5 x 106 - 106 = 4 106 (4 MHz)

g(t) digital x(t) digital

Two binary values are represented by two different amplitudes (1:

s( t ) = A cos( 2πf c t + ϑc ) : binary 1

s( t ) = A cos( 2πf 1 t + ϑc ) : binary 1

 Phase-shift keying (PSK)

s( t ) = A cos( 2πf c t + π ) : binary 1

Using PSK : let each signal element represent two bits

If a signal f(t) is sampled at regular time instants and a rate higher

Linear quantum steps Logarithmic quantum steps

• Example : x ( t ) = cos( 2πf m t ) then s(t) is given by a signal

Besides the original carrier frequency fc also the multiples of fc -

Output capacity = ∑ Input capacity

Output capacity ≤ ∑ Input capacity

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