Group Decision Support and Groupware Technologies

A Bit of History
The existence of support mechanisms for MDM activities predates the technology (Churchills cabinet war room and its wall of maps). The 1960s and 70s saw the addition of slide projectors and overheads.
The computer was the next logical step in the 1970s and 80s. Today there are entire facilities (UA and Claremont) devoted to MDM activities

Group Decision Making

Holsapple suggests we use the term multiparticipant decision maker (MDM)
A group is the MDM structure where multiple decision makers completely interact A team is the MDM structure where members advise one decision maker but do not interact A committee is the MDM structure with a single decision maker and member interaction

Hierarchical Classification of MDM Structures

Decision Structure Collaborative
Communication among nondecision-makers is relevant Communication among nondecision-makers is irrelevant

Non-Collaborative

Group
Formal Participants Multiple Decision-makers

Team
Formal Participants Single Decision-maker

Individual
No formal sources Single Decision-maker

Consensus
All must agree

Majority
Stated % must agree

Collective communication between participants & Decision-maker

Committee

Interactive communication between non-decision-maker participants

Consensus
All must agree

Majority
Stated % must agree

Results directly from decision

Implementation

Results directly from recommendation

Basic MDM Structures

Group
Multiple DMs with complete interaction

Team
Single DM with no participant interaction

Committee
Single DM with complete participant interaction

Basic Communication Network Structures

Wheel Network

Circle Network

Chain Network

Completely Connected Network

Principal Characteristics of Network Structures

Highly Centralized Wheel, Chain
Efficient for routine and recurring decisions They tend to strengthen the leadership position of the central members They tend to result in a stable set of interaction among the participants They tend to produce lower levels of satisfaction among the participants

Highly Decentralized Circle, Completely Connected

They tend to produce higher levels of satisfaction among the participants They facilitate non-routine or nonrecurring decisions They promote innovative and creative solutions

Group Behaviors and Norms

MDMs establish norms that guide the decisionmaking process
A norm specifies what group members are expected to do under given circumstances Norm sending can be through examples, peer review or sanctioning

Factors Used in Determining Decision Structure

The importance of the quality of the decision The extent to which the DM possesses the knowledge and expertise to make the decision The extent to which potential participants have the necessary information The degree of structuredness of the problem context The degree to which acceptance or commitment is critical to successful implementation The probability of acceptance The degree of motivation among the participants to achieve organizational goals The degree of potential conflict among the participants

Matrix for MDM Structure Selection

Individual
High Importance DM Expertise Participant Expertise High Structuredness Acceptance Critical Acceptance Probable Participant Motivation Potential for Conflict

Team

Committee

Group

Factors

The Problem With Groups

Size: in general, member satisfaction and cohesiveness decreases with group size. In large groups, subgroups or internal coalitions tend to form.
Groupthink: in large groups, people tend to think in ways that achieve unanimity instead of creativity.

Other Sociological Issues

Conflict: the desire to be seen as a good team member can lead to conflict avoidance.
Anonymity: one method used to control sources of conflict is to allow members to participate anonymously.

Gender Issues: males and females tend to place different values on different skills, but this may be a strength in an MDM setting.

Negotiating and Deciding

The decision may involve multiple viewpoints, thus creating the need for negotiation.
The design of the support mechanism for the MDM must accommodate the activities of negotiation. These activities include equitable access to information and support for a wide variety of communication structures.

Effects Related to MDM Size

Participant interaction tends to decrease with increase in size Affective or emotional relationships tend to decrease with increase in size Central, dominant leadership tends to increase with size Conflict is resolved with political rather than analytical solutions as size increases

Potential Consequences of Groupthink

Tends to preclude a complete and open-minded analysis of opportunities in the development of objectives Inhibits a meaningful search for information and tends to bias any searches toward a self-fulfilling selectivity Limits the participants ability to impartially appraise alternatives Often results in a complete failure to consider possibilities associated with cost of failure which, in turn, tends to result in choice selections that are more risky than is warranted by the payoff. Tends to eliminate the formation of contingency or fallback positions

MDM Support Technology Variables

Contextual Variables
Personal Factors Attitude Abilities Individual motives Background

Task-related Outcomes
I. Characteristics of the decision Quality Variability of quality over time Breadth II. Implementation of the decision Cost Ease Commitment of participants III. Attitude of participants toward decision Acceptance Comprehension Satisfaction Confidence

Group Process
Situational Factors I. Situational Factors Reasons for group membership Stage in group development Existing social networks Background Depth of analysis Participation Consensus reaching Time to reach the decision II. Communication Characteristics Clarification efforts Efficiency of the communication Exchange of information Nonverbal communication Task-oriented communication III. Interpersonal characteristics Cooperation Domination of a few members IV. Structure imposed by the technology

Group structure Work group norms Power relationships Status relationships Group cohesiveness Density (group size, room size, interpersonal distance) Anonymity Facilitator

I. Attitude toward group process Satisfaction Willingness to work with participants in the future

Technological support Degree Type

Group-related Outcomes
Task characteristics Complexity Nature Degree of uncertainty

MDM Support Technology Categorization

DSS

Objectives of MDM Support Technologies

Process support mechanisms focus on facilitating interaction
Process structure mechanisms communication activities govern the

Task support mechanisms can select, organize or derive information Task structure mechanisms provide access to techniques that filter, combine and analyze knowledge relevant to the task

Sources of Gains in MDM Activities

Collective has greater knowledge than any single participant Allows for synergistic results otherwise not obtainable Interaction stimulates the generation of knowledge or information otherwise unavailable Participants can improve individual performance through learning from others Improved evaluation over individual decision-making structure

Sources of Losses in MDM Activities

Relative allocation of speaking time is reduced with MDM size Can result in idea production blocking Can produce information overload much faster Participants may not be able to remember all the contributions of others Pressures resulting in conformity can be exacerbated Can increase evaluation apprehension in participants Allows for free-riding or social loafing of lazy or non-participative individuals Can promote cognitive inertia or groupthink Increases opportunity for socialization over goal focus Increases decision context coordination activities Can allow for partial task or knowledge analysis

Classes/Types of MDM Support Technology

Classification by feature DeSanctis and Gallupe proposed a three-level scheme based on the features offered:
Level 1: primarily intended communication among members to facilitate

Level 2 : designed to reduce uncertainty

Level 3: help regulate the decision process

DeSanctis and Gallupe MDM System Classification

MDM Level Participant Needs
message passing among participants access to data files during meeting simultaneous display of ideas, graphs, votes, etc. to all participants relaxation of inhibitions to contribute control for free-riders organization and analysis of ideas and votes preference quantification agenda planning schedule coordination -

System Feature
Electronic messaging Computer networking Large shared viewing screen or public display window Anonymous contribution Active solicitation of ideas Summarization and tabulation Rating/ranking scales Agenda templates Continuous display of progress

1
Red uce Communication Barriers

2
Reduce Uncertainty and Noise

problem structuring and solution scheduling uncertainty analysis analysis of resource allocation problems data analysis preference analysis structured guidance of deliberations

Automated planning methods (PERT, etc.) Decision tables, trees, etc. LP and optimization modeling Statistical tools Subjective probability methods MDM coordination methods (nominal, etc.)

3
Regulate Decision Processes

enforcement of formal decision procedures increased clarity of options for decision procedures structuring and filtering of messages to adhere to rules development of deliberation governance rules

Automated procedure mechanisms Automated advisor for providing advice regarding various approaches Structuring and filter agents Rule set construction and inference mechanisms

Supporting Groupwork with Computerized Systems

Classes/Types of MDM Support Technology (cont.)

Classification by technology Kraemer and King focused on the technology applied:
Electronic Boardroom Teleconference Room Group Network Information Center Collaboration Lab Decision Room

Kraemer and King MDM Classification by Technology

MDM Type
Electronic Boardroom

Facility and Hardware

Conference room with computer-controlled audiovisual wide-screen projection capabilities Conference room with computer-controlled audiovisual transmission between locations Separate office facilities connected via a computer network

Software
Application for storage and retrieval of previously prepared presentations

Specific Considerations
Same time-same place synchronous interaction. Requires audiovisual technician to be present Same time-different place synchronous interaction. Requires teleconferencing technician to be present Same time or different timedifferent place interaction with one participant serving as coordinator or chair

Teleconference Room

Application to control digital transmission of audio, video, and data

Group Network

Applications to allow for either real-time or asynchronous desktop conferencing and exchange of video, audio, and data Applications for database management, statistical analysis, graphics generation, and word processing Applications for collaborative interaction and information exchange

Information Center

Conference room with video projector for wide-screen viewing. Individual computers with display terminals Conference room with electronic whiteboard and networked computers

Same time-same place interaction. Requires specialists in modeling and specific application software to be present Same or different timesame place interaction. Requires MDM process facilitator to be present Same or different timesame place interaction. Requires MDM process facilitator to be present

Collaboration Laboratory

Decision Room

Conference room with video projector for wide screen viewing and networked computers

Applications to support brainstorming, topic commentary, voting, modeling, decision analysis, collaborative interaction and data exchange

Decision Room MDM Support Functions

Electronic brainstorming Topic commentary Issue analysis Voting and preference indication Policy formation Stakeholder analysis Organization of ideas Evaluation of alternatives Survey and Questionnaire creation and administration Multiple format file readers Participant dictionary Enterprise analysis of decision outcome on organization MDM session management

Groupware
Software designed to support collaboration, including capturing and storing the information exchanged
Current market leaders are Lotus Notes and Domino, Microsoft Exchange, Novell GroupWise and Oracle Office

Individual tools inside the software suite include a meeting manager (Lotus Sametime) and message exchange (Lotus Notes Mail)

A Lotus Sametime Meeting Center Screen

A Typical Lotus Notes Messaging Screen Layout

Groupware Classification
Ellis, et al proposed a classification system based on type of support it provides:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Messaging systems Conferencing systems Collaborative authoring systems Group DSS Coordination systems Intelligent agent systems

Forces Driving Groupware Development

Some of the major factors include:
Increased productivity Reduced number of meetings Increased automation of routine workflow Need for better global coordination Availability of widespread networks

Coleman and Khanna list 10 other factors.

Forces In Favor of Groupware Adoption

Increased cost control Increased productivity Improved customer service Support for total quality management (TQM) activities Reduced number of meetings Increased automation of routine workflow processes Desire to extend the organization to include both supplier and customer Need to integrate geophysically dislocated teams Increased competitive advantage through faster time to market Need for better global coordination Creation of services that differentiate the organization Leveraging of professional expertise and knowledge Availability of widespread network infrastructures (i.e., Internet, WWW) Improved price/performance ratios of both hardware and software necessary Increased use of ad hoc teams

Common MDM Coordination Methods

Nominal Group Technique Delphi Technique Arbitration Issue-based Information System Nemawashi

Nominal Group Technique

1. Each participant writes down ideas about what the decision should be.

2. In turn, each participant presents his or her ideas, which are recorded on a whiteboard. No discussion occurs here. 3. After all ideas are presented, participants may question others.
4. Each participant votes on each idea.

Delphi Technique
Essentially the same as nominal group technique except the participants never meet. A survey instrument is used to collect initial input from members. A second survey is sent with a summary of the collective results. These steps repeat until either a consensus or majority view is reached.

Arbitration
Most appropriate when the members of the MDM represent opposing factors. Participants agree that if mutually agreeable alternatives are not found, an outside arbitrator will get involved. The arbitrator then selects the alternative he or she deems most appropriate.

Issue-Based Information System (IBIS)

A structured argumentation method. An IBIS is represented as a graph with nodes and links. The IBIS begins with selection of a root issue node, then the various position nodes are linked to the root. These position nodes are then evaluated based on the arguments attached to them.

Nemawashi (widely used in Japan)

1. One or more members of the MDM are designated as coordinators. The coordinators then select remaining participants. 2. Coordinators construct a choice set and then experts rate the choices. 3. Coordinator selects a choice based on results in 2.

Nemawashi (cont.)
4. The alternative is circulated; the coordinator seeks consensus through persuasion and negotiation. 5. If consensus is reached, coordinators circulate a document that each MDM member signs off on.

The Virtual Workplace

Many worldwide organizations are trading real estate for collaborative technology. Work is becoming a thing you do rather than a place you go. The biggest changes brought about by the virtual workplace may be cultural or sociological rather than technological.

Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and Successful Implementation

Organizing a GSS sessionFace-to-face, same time/same place electronic meetings generally follow a common progression
1. The group leader meets with the facilitator to plan the meetingselect the software tools and develop an agenda 2. The participants meet in the decision room, the leader poses a question or problem to the group 3. The participants type their ideas or comments (i.e., brainstorm), and the results are displayed publicly

Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and Successful Implementation

Organizing a GSS session
4. The facilitator, using idea organization software, searches for common themes, topics, and ideas and organizes them into rough categories, the results are publicly displayed 5. The leader starts a discussion, the participants prioritize the ideas 6. The top 5 or 10 topics are sent to ideageneration software following a discussion; the process can be repeated or a final vote can be taken

Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and Successful Implementation

Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and Successful Implementation

GSS success factors
Organizational commitment An executive sponsor An operating sponsor User involvement and training A user-seductive interface

Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and Successful Implementation

GSS success factors
Crafting a collaborative culturethree steps toward creating a work environment that supports collaboration
1. Know what you want 2. Determine resource constraints 3. Determine what technologies can be used to overcome resource constraints

Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and Successful Implementation

Implementation collaboration issues for online
To connect business partners, an organization needs an effective collaborative environment; provided by groupware suites The need to connect collaborative tools with file management products on an organization's intranet Automatic language translation Protocols are needed for easy integration of different applications and to standardize communication

Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP to Wikis

Voice over IP (VoIP) (Internet telephony) Communication systems that transmit voice calls over Internet Protocol-based networks

Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP to Wikis

Voice over IP (VoIP)
Benefits of VoIP for business
Allows CIOs to explore different deployment options for companys communications needs Lowers total cost of ownership Lowers operational costs Reduces hardware requirements on the server side for certain applications Provides a holistic approach to security Helps streamline workflows Enables optimized conferencing tools to replace business travel

Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP to Wikis

Voice over IP (VoIP)
Benefits of VoIP for users
Eliminates unwanted interruptions and unproductive actions by intelligently filtering communications Speed decision making by providing access to real-time presence information, Initiates ad hoc conferencing/collaboration sessions Enables participation in conferencing sessions quickly and easily via a variety of mobile devices

Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP to Wikis

Collaborative workflow
Wiki A piece of server software available in a Web site that allows users to freely create and edit Web page content using any Web browser Wikilog A blog that allows everyone to participate as a peer; any one may add, delete, or change content

Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP to Wikis

Collaboration hubs The central point of control for an emarket. A single c-hub, representing one e-market owner, can host multiple collaboration spaces (c-spaces) in which trading partners use c-enablers to exchange data with the c-hub

Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP to Wikis

Collaborative networks
In a collaborative network, partners at any point in the network can interact with each other, bypassing traditional partners

Corporate (enterprise) portal A gateway for entering a corporate Web site, enabling communication, collaboration, and access to company information

Collaborative Efforts in Design, Planning, and Project Management

Collaborative development design and product

During product development, engineering and design drawings can be shared over a secure network among the contract firm, testing facility, marketing firm, and downstream manufacturing and service companies

Collaborative Efforts in Design, Planning, and Project Management

Collaborative planning, forecasting, and replenishment (CPFR) Project in which suppliers and retailers collaborate in their planning and demand forecasting to optimize the flow of materials along the supply chain Vendor-managed inventory (VMI) The practice of retailers making suppliers responsible for determining when to order and how much to order

Collaborative Efforts in Design, Planning, and Project Management

Collaborative Efforts in Design, Planning, and Project Management

Project management
Developing large-scale projects requires collaboration of a large number of units and individuals inside and outside an organization Effective and efficient communication and collaboration is a must

Creativity, Idea Generation, and Computerized Support

Creativity
Personality-related creativity traits include:
Inventiveness Independence Individuality Enthusiasm Flexibility

Creativity, Idea Generation, and Computerized Support

Creativity
Creativity can be learned and improved
Some specific brainstorming:

creativity

measures

in

The quantitative (number of ideas) The qualitative (quality of ideas) components

Stimulation by other creative people in the environment can push a group forward Stimulation can come directly from exciting ideas developed as a consequence of association among creative people Stimulation may even come from friction among employees

Creativity, Idea Generation, and Computerized Support

Idea generation brainstorming through electronic

Idea generation The process by which people generate ideas, usually supported by software; for example, developing alternative solutions to a problem With collaborative computing-support tools, the individuals do all the thinking, and the software system encourages them to proceed

Creativity, Idea Generation, and Computerized Support

Creativity-enhancing software
Computer programs that exhibit creative behavior Electronic idea generation for problem solving Software that facilitates human creativity