The Cell

Example of a cell graafian follicle

Example of a cell ovarian follicle

Example of Hair cells of the Ear

1.

Components of the Body Cell = each cell is a discrete entity, bound by a

2.

3.

membrane that Isolates it from its environment. Intercellular or Extracellular substances = materials that lie between cells to support and nourish them. Body Fluids = includes the following: a. Blood = confined within the vascular system b. Tissue or intercellular fluid = between & around the cell c. Lymph = drain tissue fluid back to the venous system

Typical animal cell

Phagocytosis & Pinocytosis

1.

Prokaryotic =(greek pro before + Karyon, nucleus)

2 Types of Cells

Found in Primitive cells such as bacteria. Metabolic & hereditary components are mixed. Have no histones (specific basic proteins) bound to their DNA. No Membranous organelles. 2. Eukaryotic = in all higher plants and animals. Bulk of hereditary material is isolated in a membrane bound nucleus lying in the remainder of the cell or Cytoplasm.

Typical animal cell

The Cell membrane

Job of the cell membrane

Transport by: Diffusion = from high to lower concentration Facilitated Diffusion = use protein channels Active transport = use energy Phagocytosis & Pinocytosis = taking on too big
molecules.

Immune system

Cell junctions

Cell skeleton with cytosol removed

Cell membrane

It is a 2 lipid layer of Phospholipids. Lipids , the water fearing (hydrophobic) Phosphoate, the water loving part ( Hydrophilic) the barrier that kept the contents intact. Serves a s a gateway & helps in the control of passage of materials in & out.

Living substance of the cell subdivided into 2 compartments. Cytoplasm = extending from the Plasma membrane to the Nuclear envelope. Karyoplasm = the substance forming the contents of the nucleus. Exists in a colloidal state cannot be filtered through Natural membranes. Components: Protein , Nucleic acids, Carbohydrates, Lipids, Inorganic materials, Water.

Protoplasm

Components of the Protoplasm

Protein = main structural elements of the cell and the Intercellular material. Exists as: Pure protein, Lipo protein, Glycoprotein, Proctoglycans or Mucoproteins. E.G. secretory products such as enzymes or some hormones. 2. Nucleic acids = DNA, found mainly in the Nucleus. RNA, found in Nucleus & cytoplasm 3. Carbohydrates = as glucose stored as Glycogen 4. Lipids = also an energy source. Important component of cellular membrane.
1.

5. Inorganic materials = exists as Free radicals, combined with Proteins & Lipids. * involved in Essential functions. a. Maintenance of Osmotic pressure gradients. b. Muscle contraction/ Relaxation. c. Tissue rigidity, e.g. bone. d. Cell adhesion e. Enzyme activation 6. Water
* 75% of Protoplasm * Partly Free, available for Metabolic Processes. * Partly bound to protein as a structural component.

Properties of Protoplasm

Irritability Conductivity Contractility Respiration Absorption Secretion Excretion Growth

Irritability = capacity to respond to a stimulus. Conductivity = can transmit a wave of excitation (an electrical impulse) through out the cell from the point of stimulus. Highly developed in Nerve cells and to a lesser extent in Muscle cells. Contractility = property of changing shape in the sense of shortening, e.g. Muscle cells. Respiration = Essential for life. A process whereby food substances & Oxygen within the cell interact chemically to produce Energy, Carbon dioxide and water. Absorption = imbibition of materials that later maybe assimilated by the cell in metabolism or otherwise utilized.

Secretion = process by which cell extrudes material (useful) such as Digestive enzyme or a Hormone. Excretion = extrusion of waste material from the cell. Growth = increase in size resulting from increase in the amount of protoplasm Beyond maximum size Increase in cell number Cell division Metabolism.

Metabolism

Chemically process by which nutrition is effected:

> Breakdown of Protoplasm > Materials brought to the cell as food supply.

Catabolism = energy is released by Cell Anabolism = energy is utilized by cell to produce materials that are retained or released.

Components of the Cell

Cytoplasm, 3 main structural components:

Organelles, Inclusions, Cytoskeleton

Nucleus, includes: Nuclear envelope Nucleolus Nucleoplasm Chromatin

Cytoplasm 3 main structural components:

Organelles Inclusions Cytoskeleton Fluid component = Cytosol Exhibits functional interactions among organelles. Result in:
Protein synthesis Intracellular digestion. Uptake & release of material Organelles = metabolically active units of living matter. Limited by a membrane

Organelles, composed of:

Cytoplasm

Plasma membrane, Ribosomes, Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum, Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum, Annulate Lamellae, Mitochondria, Golgi complex(appartus), Coated vesicles, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes, Centrioles. Inclusions = Glycogen, Lipid droplets, Lipofuscin Cytoskeleton = Microtubules, Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments, Microtrabeculare lattice.

Organelles
1.

Cytoplasm

Plasma membrane = 7.5 nm thick

>Composed of a lipid bilayer and associated proteins.

>Envelops the cells, aids in maintaining its structural & functional integrity >Functions as a semipermeable membrane between the Cytoplasm and the External environment. >Sensory device, recognize other cells & macromolecules. >composed of an Inner leaflet (face cytoplasm), & Outer leaflet( facing the extracellular environment) >Exhibits a Trilaminar structure (the Unit membrane).

Plasma membrane

Lipid Bilayer Freely permeable to small nonpolar Lipid-soluble molecules but is impermeable to charged Ions. Composed of Phospholipids, Glycolipids & Cholesterol. Phospholipids, are amphiphatic, possess a polar head (hydropholic) and two non polar (hydrophobic) fatty acyl tails. The polar head faces the membrane surface. Double hydrophobic tail projects into the interior of the membrane.

Lipid Layer

Glycolipids = present in the outer leaflet only. Have a polar carbohydrates residue, extendds from the outer leaflet into the extracellualr space. Forming part of the Glycocalyx. Cholesterol = located in both leaflets, 2% of Plasmalemma lipids, assists in maintaining the structural integrity.

Ribosomes

12 nm wide and 25 nm long. Consists of a small and large subunit composed of several types of nRNA. Maybe free in the Cytosol, bound to membranes of the RER and Outer Nuclear membrane. Are the sites where mRNA is translated into Protein. Ribosome composition:
rRNA type (5S) (5.8S) (28S) 18 S Number of Proteins. 49 33

Subunit Large (60S) Samll (40S)

Site where noncytosolic proteins are synthesized; Secretory, Plasma membrane, Lysosomal. System of sacs or cavities, bounded by membranes
outer surface studded with ribosomes interior region called cisterna Has a membrane continuous with the Outer Nuclear membrane ( perinuclear cisternae in continuity with Cisternae or RER> Abundant in cells synthesizing secretory proteins = RER in parallel rays. Has receptors (Ribophorins) in its membrane to which the Large Ribosomal subunit binds.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

Smoothe Endoplasmic Retinaculum

Irregular network of membrane Bounded Channels that lack Ribosomes on its surface, appearing smooth. Appears as branching anastomosing tubules or vesicles, membrane do not contain Ribophorins. Less common than RER Predominantes in Cells synthesizing steroids, Triglycerides & Cholesterols. Serves different functions in different cell types: Steroid Hormone synthesis Drug detoxification Muscle contraction and relaxation

ER ( endoplasmic reticulum )

The endoplasmic reticulum or ER is like a maze of membrane canals running throughout cells. It is closely related to several other membrane bound organelles in the cell

Annulate Lamellae

Parallel stacks of membranes (6-10) located near the nucleus. Resembles the Nuclear envelope, including its Pore complexes. Often arranged with their Annuli (pores) in register. Are continuous with the RER Are found in rapidly growing cells. Germ cells Embryonic cells Tumor cells

Rod-shaped organelles [0,2um (width), 78 um (length)] Possess an outer membrane, which invaginates to form Cristae Important in energy metabolism as major source of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). Site of many metabolic reaction Subdivided into an Intermediate compartment and an Inner compartment. Contains granules within the Matrix that binds the Divalent Cations Mg+2 & Ca+2 Contains all of the enzymes of the Krebs (TCA) cycle. Contains elementary particles that contains ATP synthase. Condensed form result from a conformational change in orthodox form.

Mitochondria

Mitchondria

Golgi Complex (apparatus)

Like the packaging & shipping department. Consist of Disk shaped cisternae (saccules) arranged in a stack 2 major functions: Processing of noncytosolic proteins synthesized in the RER. Membrane retrieval, recycling & redistribution.

Coated vesicles
Characterized by a vesible cytoplasmic surface coat. 2 varieties: a. Clathrin coated vesicles Clathrin 3 large & 3 small polypeptide chains that form a Triskelion (3 legged structure). Formed during Endocytosis and associated with signal directed transport. B. Non Clathrin coated vesicles. Involved in the transport of Proteins from RER to Golgi; form Golgi cisternae to another; from Golgi complex to Plasma membrane. * Associated with constitutive protein transport

Lysosomes

Dense membrane bounded Organelles. Diverse morphology & size, with digestive enzymes. Formed when sequestered material fuses with a late Endosome and Digestion begins. Identified by Cytochemical staining for acid Hydrolases. Possess special membrane protein & >40 Hydrolases. Possess ATP powered Proton Pumps in their membrane and acid ph (=5)

Types of Lysosomes
A. B. C. D.

Multivesicular bodies Phagolysosomes. Autophagolysosomes Residual bodies.

Peroxisomes

1. 2. 3.

Also known as Microbodies Memebrane bounded, ovoid (+) for Catalase Small organelles (0.15 0.25um dm) Originate from pre existing peroxisomes, divide by Fission. Contains 3 oxidative enzymes D-amino acidoxidase Urate oxidase Catalse & a number of other enzymes. Enzymes functions vary from Oxidation of fatty acieds to detoxification of substances such as Ethanol. Lifespan ; 5 6 days.

Centrioles
Pair of Cylindrical rods (0.2um wide & 0.5 um Long) oriented at right angles to one another. Located in the Centrosome ( cell center) Self duplicating in the S phase of the cell cycle. Wall composed of 9 Triplets of /Microtubules (9+) Axoneme pattern) Associated with Microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) dense pericentriolar bodies that give rise to Microtubules * Form the Poles of the Mitotic spindles where Microtubules originate or converge. * Form Basal bodies which give rise to the Axonemes of Cilia and Flagella.

Inclusions

Lifeless accumulations of Materials Not metabolically active Temporarily present. Composition: a. Glycogen b. Lipid droplet c. Lipofuscin

Inclusions

Glycogen a. Small clusters or large aggregates (as rossettes) b. Electron dense c. 20 30 nm Beta particles d. Not membrane bound e. serve as a stored energy source.

Inclusions

Lipid Droplets a. vary markedly in size b. Not membrane bound c. Storage forms of Triglycerides & Cholesterol.

Inclusions

Lipofuscin a. membrane bound, electron DEN b. represents a residue of undigested materials. c. Age pigment d. Most common in non-dividing cells and Hepatocytes.

Nucleus & Nucleolus

One of the most important organelle in the cell Also called the brain center or the control center It controls the development of life and activities. Made of dense area of DNA and protein. It functions in RNA & Ribosome synthesis.

Nucleolus

Nucleolus

The DNA in the chromosomes that controls life, carries coded instructions to make RNA molecules with ribosomes build proteins to start cell activity. The nuclear membrane is connected to the ER and transport molecules thru out the cell. The ER with the Golgi bodies collect proteins made by the ribosomes and package them into them in vesicles and transport it out of the cell

Cytoskeleton

Cell skeleton with cytosol removed

Appear as cylinders at right angle to one another. Help to form the spindle fibers, microtubules that move around when the cell is dividing.

Centrioles

Basic components of the cell in electron microscopy

Granules = 12 15 nm in dm, RNA and protein. Fibrils of 5 nm in dm, RNA and often closely packed. Chromatin both peripheral and nuclear associated chromatin & as fine loops of chromatin from the peripheral rim into the interior. Proteinaceous, amorphous m,aterial uiusually occuring in aggregations.

Cell cycle

Mitosis ( cell division) Interphase ( period between division), DNA is synthesized ( DNA duplication or the S stage), Then G2 stage ( post duplication stage). Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

Chromosomes

46 Human male somatic chromosomes Arrange in 23 pairs

22 are autosomes One pair formed the X & Y sex chromosomes

Result is 22 autosomes and one X or Y chromosomes.

Chromosomes

22 pairs of Female autosomes 1 pair of X chromosomes ( 2X Chrom.) Diploid or double in number. In the gonads, it contains half the number or 23 chromosomes or Haploid and needs a special cell division called Meiosis or reduction division. Result is 22 autosomes and 1 X chrom.

Sex Chromatin (Barr Bodies)

In normal female chromosomes contains 2 X chromosomes. One appears small and indistinct but visible mass in the interphase nucleus Barr bodies. It is 1 um in dm. It sometimes occur as Drumstick slender protrusion in the nucleus seen in 20 70 % squamous epithelial cheek mucosa scrapping of somatic cells. It confirms the cell is from a female. Turner syndrome, female somatic cell has only 1 of the X chromosomes. Klinefilters syndrome, it contains1 of the Y chromosomes & 2 or more of the X chromosomes or even 3 Barr bodies

Cell Division

Depends on the demand for growth and replacements in tissues. 3 types of cell population 1. Static = do not undergo DNA synthesis and cell division,i.e., neurons of adults nervous system. 2. Expanding = small proportion of DNA undergo DNA synthesis and cell division,i.e., liver, kidney, some glands. 3. Renewing population = need continuous replacement or cell division for dying cells,i.e.,bone marrow, G.I. tract, epidermis.

Cytokinesis = cell division of the nucleus Karyokinesis = cell division of the nucleus. Both can occur. Karyokinesis can occur without cytopkinesis as in liver cells, osteoclasts, megakaryocytes results in binucleate or multinucleate cells. In Sex cells or gametes(ova/spermatozoa), karyokinesis involves Meiosis, haploid chrom.number results so that after fertilization, the fertilized ova regains the Diploid number of chromosomes in somatic cells.

Stages of Mitosis

Prophase

Chromatin threads condense ( shortened or thickened), chromosomes becomes dark short and visible. Centromere appears, Chromatids occur in each half with DNA. Centrioles starts to duplicate, microtubules form, starts to separate between centrioles. Nucleolus gradually disappear, spindle fibers occur Nuclear envelope starts to disintegrate, becomes thinner.

Metaphase, all chromatids move to the center of the cell in relation to the spindle and arrange in equatorial plate. Anaphase, after completing the movements Splitting the chromosomes occur, move to opposite poles of the cell. ( diploid set of 46 chrom.to each end). Telophase, at each pole the chromosomes detach from the microtubules and the microtubules disintegrate. Each has its own daughter cell with a nuclear envelop and nucleolus are reforming and the centriole is duplicating. The Plasma membrane constricts and the two new daughter cells are formed.

What occurs after Mitosis

Cell differentiation Protein synthesis secretions and Transcription of DNA Formation of 4 primary tissue

Epithelium Connective tissue Muscles Nervous tissues.

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