TYPES OF ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS

Prepared by:
Anjali

tailor(090070110051) Khushboo desai(090070110037) Khushboo patel(090070110035)

WHAT IS TRANSDUCER?

A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy to another. Energy types include (but are not limited to) electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic (including light), chemical, acoustic or thermal energy. While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can be considered a transducer. Transducers are widely used in measuring instruments.

APPLICATION
Electromagnetic Electrochemical Electromechanical Electroacoustic Photoelectric Electrostatic Thermoelectric

STRAIN GAUGE

A strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain of an object. The most common type of strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil pattern. The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive. As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing its electrical resistance to change. This resistance change, usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the strain by the quantity known as the gauge factor.

Typical foil strain gauge. The gauge is far more sensitive to strain in the vertical direction than in the horizontal direction. The markings outside the active area help to align the gauge during installation.

PHYSICAL OPERATION

When an electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such that it does not break or permanently deform, it will become narrower and longer, changes that increase its electrical resistance end-toend.

Conversely, when a conductor is compressed such that it does not buckle, it will broaden and shorten, changes that decrease its electrical resistance end-to-end. From the measured electrical resistance of the strain gauge, the amount of applied stress may be inferred.

A typical strain gauge arranges a long, thin conductive strip in a zig-zag pattern of parallel lines such that a small amount of stress in the direction of the orientation of the parallel lines results in a larger strain over the effective length of the conductorand hence a larger change in resistancethan would be observed with a single straight-line conductive wire. Strain gauges measure only local deformations and can be manufactured small enough to allow a "finite element" like analysis of the stresses to which the specimen is subject.

Gauge Factor:
The gauge factor GF is defined as:
where R is the change in resistance caused by strain, RG is the resistance of the undeformed gauge, and is strain.

TYPES OF GAUGES
For measurements of small strain, semiconductor strain gauges, so called piezoresistors, are often preferred over foil gauges. A semiconductor gauge usually has a larger gauge factor than a foil gauge. In biological measurements, especially blood flow a variant called mercury-in-rubber strain gauge is used. This kind of strain gauge consists of a small amount of liquid mercury enclosed in a small rubber tube, which is applied around e.g., a toe or leg. Swelling of the body part results in stretching of the tube, making it both longer and thinner, which increases electrical resistance. Fiber optic sensing can be employed to measure strain along an optical fiber. Capacitive strain gauges use a variable capacitor to indicate the level of mechanical deformation.

PH METER

A pH meter is an electronic instrument used for measuring the pH (acidity) of a liquid (though special probes are sometimes used to measure the pH of semi-solid substances). A typical pH meter consists of a special measuring probe (a glass electrode ) connected to an electronic meter that measures and displays the pH reading.

The probe
The pH probe measures pH as the activity of hydrogen actions surrounding a thin-walled glass bulb at its tip. The probe produces a small voltage (about 0.06 volt per pH unit) that is measured and displayed as pH units by the meter.

Meter

The meter circuit is no more than a voltmeter that displays measurements in pH units instead of volts.

The input impedance of the meter must be very high because of the high resistance approximately 20 to 1000 M of the glass electrode probes typically used with

The circuit of a simple pH meter usually consists of operational amplifiers in an inverting configuration, with a total voltage gain of about 17. The inverting amplifier converts the small voltage produced by the probe (+0.059 volt/pH) into pH units, which are then offset by seven volts to give a reading on the pH scale. For example: At neutral pH (pH 7) the voltage at the probe's output is 0 volts. 0 * 17 + 7 = 7. At basic pH, the voltage at the probe's output ranges from +0 to +0.41 volts (7 * 0.059 = 0.41). So for a sample of pH 10 (3 pH units above neutral), 3 * 0.059 = 0.18 volts), the output of the meter's amplifier is 0.18 * 17 + 7 = 10. At acid pH, the voltage at the probe's output ranges from 0.41 volts to 0. So for a sample of pH 4 (3 pH units below neutral), 3 * 0.059 = 0.18 volts, the output of the meter's amplifier is 0.18 * 17 + 7 = 4.

CALIBRATION AND USE

For very precise work the pH meter should be calibrated before each measurement. For normal use calibration should be performed at the beginning of each day. The reason for this is that the glass electrode does not give a reproducible e.m.f. over longer periods of time. The calibration process correlates the voltage produced by the probe (approximately 0.06 volts per pH unit) with the pH scale. After each single measurement, the probe is rinsed with distilled water or deionized water to remove any traces of the solution being measured.

STORAGE CONDITIONS OF THE GLASS PROBES

When not in use, the glass probe tip must be kept wet at all times to avoid the pH sensing membrane dehydration and the subsequent dysfunction of the electrode. A glass electrode alone (i.e., without combined reference electrode) is typically stored immersed in an acidic solution of around pH 3.0. In an emergency, acidified tap water can be used, but distilled or deionised water must never be used for longerterm probe storage as the relatively ionless water "sucks" ions out of the probe membrane through diffusion, which degrades it. Combined electrodes (glass membrane + reference electrode) are better stored immersed in the bridge electrolyte (often KCl 3 M) to avoid the diffusion of the electrolyte (KCl) out of the liquid junction.

 CLEANING AND TROUBLESHOOTING OF THE

GLASS PROBES
Occasionally (about once a month), the probe may be cleaned using pH-electrode cleaning solution; generally a 0.1 M solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl) is used,having a pH of about one. In case of strong degradation of the glass membrane performance due to membrane poisoning, diluted hydrofluoric acid(HF < 2 %) can be used to quickly etch(< 1 minute) a thin damaged film of glass. Alternatively a dilute solution of ammonium fluoride(NH4F) can be used.

TYPES OF PH METERS
pH meters range from simple and inexpensive pen-like devices to complex and expensive laboratory instruments with computer interfaces and several inputs for indicator and temperature measurements to be entered to adjust for the slight variation in pH caused by temperature.

Specialty meters and probes are available for use in special applications, harsh environments, etc.

RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors or resistive thermal devices (RTDs), are temperature sensors that exploit the predictable change in electrical resistance of some materials with changing temperature.
As they are almost invariably made of platinum, they are often called platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs). They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many industrial applications below 600 C, due to higher accuracy and repeatability.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION
There are many categories; carbon resistors, film, and wire-wound types are the most widely used.

Carbon resistors are widely available and are very inexpensive. They have very reproducible results at low temperatures. They are the most reliable form at extremely low temperatures.
They generally do not suffer from significant hysteresis or strain gauge effects.

Film thermometers have a layer of platinum on a substrate; the layer may be extremely thin, perhaps one micrometer. Advantages of this type are relatively low cost (the high cost of platinum being offset by the tiny amount required) and fast response.

Wire-wound thermometers can have greater accuracy, especially for wide temperature ranges.
The coil diameter provides a compromise between mechanical stability and allowing expansion of the wire to minimize strain and consequential drift.

Coil elements have largely replaced wire-wound elements in industry. This design has a wire coil which can expand freely over temperature, held in place by some mechanical support which lets the coil keep its shape. This design is similar to that of a SPRT, the primary standard upon which ITS-90 is based, while providing the durability necessary for industrial use.

FUNCTION
Resistance thermometers are usually made using platinum, because of its linear resistance-temperature relationship and its chemical inertness. The platinum detecting wire needs to be kept free of contamination to remain stable.
A platinum wire or film is supported on a former in such a way that it gets minimal differential expansion or other strains from its former, yet is reasonably resistant to vibration. RTD assemblies made from iron or copper are also used in some applications.

Measurement of resistance requires a small current to be passed through the device under test. This can cause resistive heating, causing significant loss of accuracy if manufacturers' limits are not respected, or the design does not properly consider the heat path. Mechanical strain on the resistance thermometer can also cause inaccuracy. Lead wire resistance can also be a factor; adopting three- and four-wire, instead of two-wire, connections can eliminate connection lead resistance effects from measurements . three-wire connection is sufficient for most purposes and almost universal industrial practice.

Four-wire connections are used for the most precise

ELEMENTS
Resistance thermometer elements are available in a number of forms. The most common are: Unsupported wirewound - a wire coil minimally supported within a sealed housing filled with an inert gas. These sensors are used up to 961.78 C and are used in the SPRTs that define ITS-90 Wirewound in a ceramic insulator a wire coil sealed in a ceramic cylinder, works with temperatures to 850 C Wire encapsulated in glass - wire around glass core with glass fused homogeneously around. More protection to the detecting wire than other forms and resists vibration, but smaller usable range Thin film - platinum film on ceramic substrate, small and inexpensive to mass-produce, fast response to temperature change, but smaller temperature range and not capable of the

CONSTRUCTION
These elements nearly always require insulated leads attached. At temperatures below about 250 C PVC, silicon rubber or PTFE insulators are used. Above this, glass fibre or ceramic are used. The measuring point, and usually most of the leads, require a housing or protective sleeve, often made of a metal alloy which is chemically inert to the process being monitored. Selecting and designing protection sheaths can require more care than the actual sensor, as the sheath must withstand chemical or physical attack and provide convenient attachment points.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATION

Advantages of platinum resistance thermometers:
High accuracy Low drift Wide operating range Suitable for precision applications

Limitations: RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 C. At temperatures above 660 C it becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the platinum from becoming contaminated by impurities from the metal sheath of the thermometer. This is why laboratory standard thermometers replace the metal sheath with a glass construction. At very low temperatures, say below -270 C (or 3 K), due to the fact that there are very few phonons, the resistance of an RTD is mainly determined by impurities and boundary scattering and thus basically independent of temperature. As a result, the sensitivity of the RTD is essentially zero and therefore not useful. Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small temperature changes and have a slower response time. However, thermistors have a smaller temperature range and stability.