Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept.

CSIE, NDHU 1
Set Theory
Two's company, three is none.
Chapter 3
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 2
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.1 Sets and Subsets
A well-defined collection of objects
(the set of outstanding people, outstanding is very subjective)
finite sets, infinite sets, cardinality of a set, subset
A={1,3,5,7,9}
B={x|x is odd}
C={1,3,5,7,9,...}
cardinality of A=5 (|A|=5)
A is a proper subset of B.
C is a subset of B.
1 1 1 e e e A B C , ,
A B
C B
c
_
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 3
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.1 Sets and Subsets
Russell's Paradox
S A A A A = e { | } is a set and
( .
(
a) Show that is , then
b) Show that is , then
S S S S
S S S S
e e
e e
Principia Mathematica by Russel and Whitehead
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 4
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.1 Sets and Subsets
set equality
C D C D D C = _ . _ ( ) ( )
subsets
A B x x A x B _ e e [ ]
A B x x A x B
x x A x B
x x A x B
. e e
- e v e
- e . e
[ ]
[ ( ) )]
[ ]
C D C D D C
C D D C
= _ . _
_ v _
( )
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 5
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.1 Sets and Subsets
null set or empty set : {}, |
universal set, universe: U
power set of A: the set of all subsets of A
A={1,2}, P(A)={|, {1}, {2}, {1,2}}
If |A|=n, then |P(A)|=2
n
.
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 6
If |A|=n, then |P(A)|=2
n
.
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.1 Sets and Subsets
For any finite set A with |A|=n>0, there are C(n,k) subsets of
size k.
Counting the subsets of A according to the number, k, of
elements in a subset, we have the combinatorial identity

0 for , 2
2 1 0
> = |
.
|

\
|
+ + |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
n
n
n n n n
n

Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 7

Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.1 Sets and Subsets
Ex. 3.9
Number of nonreturn-Manhattan paths between
two points with integer coordinated
From (2,1) to (7,4): 3 Ups, 5 Rights
8!/(5!3!)=56 R,U,R,R,U,R,R,U
permutation
8 steps, select 3 steps to be Up
{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}, a 3 element subset represents a way,
for example, {1,3,7} means steps 1, 3, and 7 are up.
the number of 3 element subsets=C(8,3)=8!/(5!3!)=56
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 8
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.1 Sets and Subsets
Ex. 3.10 The number of compositions of an positive integer
4=3+1=1+3=2+2=2+1+1=1+2+1=1+1+2=1+1+1+1
4 has 8 compositions. (4 has 5 partitions.)
Now, we use the idea of subset to solve this problem.
Consider 4=1+1+1+1
1st plus
sign
2nd plus
sign
3rd plus
sign
The uses or not-uses of
these signs determine
compositions.
compositions=The number of subsets of {1,2,3}=8
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 9
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.1 Sets and Subsets
Ex. 3.11 For integer n, r with
n r > > 1
prove
n
r
n
r
n
r
+
|
\

|
.
|
=
|
\

|
.
|
+

|
\

|
.
|
1
1
combinatorially.
Let
A x a a a
n
= { , , , , }
1 2

Consider all subsets of A that contain r elements.
n
r
n
r
n
r
+
|
\

|
.
|
=
|
\

|
.
|
+

|
\

|
.
|
1
1
those exclude r
those include r
all possibilities
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 10
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.1 Sets and Subsets
Ex. 3.13 The Pascal's Triangle
0
0
|
\

|
.
|
1
0
|
\

|
.
|
1
1
|
\

|
.
|
2
1
|
\

|
.
|
2
2
|
\

|
.
|
2
0
|
\

|
.
|
3
2
|
\

|
.
|
3
1
|
\

|
.
|
3
3
|
\

|
.
|
3
0
|
\

|
.
|
4
1
|
\

|
.
|
4
2
|
\

|
.
|
4
3
|
\

|
.
|
4
4
|
\

|
.
|
4
0
|
\

|
.
|
binomial
coefficients
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 11
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.1 Sets and Subsets
common notations
(a) Z=the set of integers={0,1,-1,2,-1,3,-3,...}
(b) N=the set of nonnegative integers or natural numbers
(c) Z
+
=the set of positive integers
(d) Q=the set of rational numbers={a/b| a,b is integer, b not zero}
(e) Q
+
=the set of positive rational numbers
(f) Q*=the set of nonzero rational numbers
(g) R=the set of real numbers
(h) R
+
=the set of positive real numbers
(i) R*=the set of nonzero real numbers
(j) C=the set of complex numbers
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 12
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.1 Sets and Subsets
common notations
(k) C*=the set of nonzero complex numbers
(l) For any n in Z
+
, Z
n
={0,1,2,3,...,n-1}
(m) For real numbers a,b with a<b,
[ , ] { | } a b x R a x b = e s s
( , ) { | } a b x R a x b = e < <
[ , ) { | } a b x R a x b = e s <
( , ] { | } a b x R a x b = e < s
closed interval
open interval
half-open interval
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 13
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.2 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory
Def. 3.5 For A,B
_U
a)
A B x x A x B
A B x x A x B
A B x x A B x A B
= e v e
= e . e
= e . e
{ | }
{ | }
{ | } A
b)
c)
union
intersection
symmetric difference
Def.3.6 mutually disjoint
A B = |
Def 3.7 complement A U A x x U x A = = e . e { | }
Def 3.8 relative complement of A in B
B A x x B x A = e . e { | }
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 14
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.2 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory
Theorem 3.4 For any universe U and any set A,B in U, the
following statements are equivalent:
A B
A B B
A B A
B A
_
=
=
_
a)
b)
c)
d)
reasoning process
(a) (b), (b) (c),
(c) (d), and (d) (a)


Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 15
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.2 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory
The Laws of Set Theory
) ( ) ( ) (
Laws ) ( ) ( ) ( (5)
) ( ) (
Laws ) ( ) ( (4)

Laws (3)

Laws ' (2)
of Law ) 1 (
C A B A C B A
ve Distributi C A B A C B A
C B A C B A
e Associativ C B A C B A
A B B A
e Commutativ A B B A
B A B A
s Demorgan B A B A
Complement Double A A
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 16
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.2 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory
The Laws of Set Theory
A ) B A ( A
Laws Absorption A ) B A ( A (10)
Laws Domination = A , U U A (9)
Laws Inverse A A , U A A (8)
Laws Identity A U A , A A (7)
Laws Idempotent A A A , A A A (6)
=
=
=
= =
= =
= =
| |
|
|
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 17
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.2 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory
s dual of s (s
d
)
|
|




U
U


Theorem 3.5 (The Principle of Duality) Let s denote a theorem
dealing with the equality of two set expressions. Then s
d
is also
a theorem.
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 18
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.2 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory
Ex. 3.17 What is the dual of A B _ ?
Since A B A B B A B
A B B A B B B A
_ = _
= = _
.
.
The dual of is the dual of
, which is That is, .
Venn diagram
U
A
A
A
B
A B
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 19
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.2 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory
Ex. 3.19. Negate
B
A B
A B x x A x B A
A B A B A B

= e . e =
= =
.
{ | }
Ex. 3.20 Negate A B
A B x x A B x A B
A B A B A B A B
A B A B A B A B A B
A B A B A B A A B B
B A A B A B A B
A B A B
A
A
A
A A
.
{ | }
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) [( ) ] [( ) ]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
= e . e
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 20
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.2 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory
Def 3.10.

i I
i i
i I
i i
A x x A i I
A x x A i I
e
e
= e e
= e e
{ | }
{ | }
for at least one , and
for every
I: index set
Theorem 3.6 Generalized DeMorgan's Laws
i I
i
i I
i
i I
i
i I
i
A A
A A
e e
e e
=
=


Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 21
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.3 Counting and Venn Diagrams
Ex. 3.23. In a class of 50 college freshmen, 30 are studying
BASIC, 25 studying PASCAL, and 10 are studying both. How
many freshmen are studying either computer language?
U
A B
10 15 20
5
| | | | | | | | A B A B A B = +
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 22
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.3 Counting and Venn Diagrams
Given 100 samples
set A: with D
1

set B: with D
2
set C: with D
3
Ex 3.24. Defect types of an AND gate:
D
1
: first input stuck at 0
D
2
: second input stuck at 0
D
3
: output stuck at 1
with |A|=23, |B|=26, |C|=30,
| | , | | , | | ,
| |
A B A C B C
A B C
= = =
=
7 8 10
3
, how many samples have defects?
A
B
C
11
4
3
5
7
12
15
43
Ans:57
| | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | |
A B C A B C A B
A C B C A B C
= + +
+
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 23
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.3 Counting and Venn Diagrams
Ex 3.25 There are 3 games. In how many ways can one play
one game each day so that one can play each of the
three at least once during 5 days?
set A: without playing game 1
set B: without playing game 2
set C: without playing game 3
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| |
| |
A B C
A B B C C A
A B C
A B C
Ans
= = =
= = =
=
= + =
= =
2
1
0
3 2 3 1 0 93
3 93 150
5
5
5 5
5
balls containers
1
2
3
4
5
g1
g2
g3
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 24
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.4 A Word on Probability
U=sample space
event A
Pr(A)=the probability that A occurs=|A|/|U|
a
elementary event
Pr(a)=|{a}|/|U|=1/|U|
Discrete Math by R.S. Chang, Dept. CSIE, NDHU 25
Chapter 3 Set Theory
3.4 A Word on Probability
Ex. 3.27 If one tosses a coin four times, what is the probability
of getting two heads and two tails?
Ans: sample space size=2
4
=16
event: H,H,T,T in any order, 4!/(2!2!)=6
Consequently, Pr(A)=6/16=3/8
Each toss is independent of the outcome of any previous toss.
Such an occurrence is called a Bernoulli trial.
Supplementary
Exercise:
4, 18