CE 330: Soil Mechanics Basic Geology and the Origin of Soils

Dante Fratta University of Wisconsin-Madison

Definitions
Geology: is the science that deals with rocks, minerals, and subsurface rocks. This science also studies the formation, structure and behavior of these materials.
Engineering Geology: deals the the application of geologic concepts into engineering practice.

Rocks and Soils

Rocks for a geologist is any natural formed aggregate or mass of mineral matter, whether or not coherent, constituting an essential and appreciable part of the earth crust Rocks for an engineer is a hard durable material that cannot be excavated without blasting These definitions are sometimes conflicting.

Rocks and Soils

Most rocks are cemented Most rocks have low porosity Weathering can greatly alter the rocks properties. Depending on scale, rocks are considered a discontinuous material. Rocks can have the largest principal stress either in the vertical or horizontal direction (complex stress history).
Most soils are not cemented Most soils have large porosity Weathering barely alters the soil properties. Depending on scale, soils are considered a continuous material. Most soils have the largest principal stress in the vertical directions.

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Minerals
Minerals are naturally occurring solids with specific structures and chemical composition. There are thousand of minerals, and the vast majority form rocks (rock-forming minerals) Properties of minerals control the properties of rocks Identifications is done using physical (color, Mohs Scale), chemicals properties (evaluating reactions), and structure (microscope, X-ray diffraction)

Minerals Mohs Scale

1 Talc (scratched by finger nails) 2 Gypsum (~ 2.2 fingernail) 3 Calcite (~ 3.2 copper penny) 4 Fluorite 5 Apatite (~ 5.1 pocketknife) 6 Orthoclase (~ 6.5 steel needle) 7 Quartz (scratches glass with ease) 8 Topaz (scratches glass) 9 Corundum (cuts glass) 10 Diamond

Minerals - Examples
Quartz (SiO2): is a very common mineral. Mohs hardness 7. Chert is a type of amorphous silicate that may react with Portland cement. Feldspar (orthoclase KAlSi3O8 and plagioclase NaAlSi3O8 ): is the most abundant mineral. Mohs hardness 6 (orthoclase)

Minerals - Examples
Calcite (CaCO3): is soluble in water which can transport it. It may cement soils when precipitate out of solution. It reacts with hydrochloridic acid. Mohs hardness 3. Dolomite: similar composition to calcite (it has magnesium) Mica (Muscovite is white; Biotite is black): semitransparent flakes or sheets with very low friction coefficient.

Pitt Univ.

Pitt Univ.

Minerals - Examples
Gypsum: it is a whitish mineral that has cementing properties. It is used in the manufacturing of Portland cement and dry walls. It is soluble in water. Pyroxene, Amphibole, Hornblende, Olivine: are ferromagnesian minerals. Limonite, Magnetite: are minerals that contain iron (Fe2O3). They have rusty color (e.g., Georgia clay) Ice (solid H2O). Water is not considered a mineral. Diamond: is the hardest mineral of all. It is composed of pure carbon.

The Geologic Cycle

The geologic cycle explains the process of rock and soil formation
Soils
weathering weathering

Sedimentary Rock
metamorphosis

Igneous Rock

metamorphosis

Metamorphic Rock

Molten MAGMA

(Coduto 1999)

The Geologic Cycle

Igneous Rocks: they are formed by the cooling of lava. There are two types: intrusive and extrusive rocks. Intrusive rocks cool very slowly and have large grains (e.g., granite, diorite, gabbro) Extrusive rocks cool very fast and have small grains (e.g., basalt, andesite, rhyolite).

The Geologic Cycle

Weathering Process: involves the physical, chemical, and biological breakdown of the rock. All these actions are due to weather forces. Erosion: water, ice, and wind Chemical reactions: due to the presence of water, oxygen, and other chemicals. Opening of cracks by the unloading of overlying soils and rocks, by the action of roots, by freezing and thawing, and thermal expansion and contraction. Landslides and rock falls. Rate of Weathering?

The Geologic Cycle

Sedimentary Rocks: are formed the the transformation of soils back to rock by a process known as induration or lithification. There are two types of rocks: clastic and carbonate rocks.

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The Geologic Cycle

Clastic rocks: are formed by the hardening of soil deposits due to the pressure of overlying materials and cementation of water soluble minerals, iron oxides and carbonates. They usually show layers (strata). These layers are known as bedding planes. Typical examples include: sandstone, claystone, conglomerate, shale (indurated clays) Slacking: is the process by which fine-grained clastic rock deteriorate due to excavation and exposure. Slacking can be a problem for engineering structures.

The Geologic Cycle

Carbonate rocks: they are formed by organic materials that accumulate and become indurated. Typical examples include limestone (CaCO3 water and carbonic acid soluble may trigger sinkhole big problem in Florida, Karst topography), chalk (a very soft rock), dolomite (mineral dolomite instead of calcite).

(from USGS 2000)

The Geologic Cycle

Metamorphic Rocks: they are formed by the action of large pressure and temperature. These actions produce changes in mineral-forming rocks. The metamorphic process generally improves the engineering properties of the rock as it reduces the porosity, and increases the hardness and the strength. Examples: Foliated (slate derived from shale, schist large mica content, gneiss derived from granite) and non-foliated rocks (quartzite and marble).

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Formation, Transport and Deposition of Soils

Residual Soils: these are soils that remain in the same place of the formation (the rate of formation is faster than the rate of transport). These types of soils are typical of tropical regions. Deposits can be several hundred meters deep. Examples: decomposed granite, saprolite (rotten rock; e.g; Piedmont formation, GA), literite (tropical regions, usually cemented with iron oxides rusted color)

Formation, Transport and Deposition of Soils

Glacial Soils: the action of glaciers grinds down soils and rock and transports the resultant materials over large distances. The formed material is very heterogeneous. There are particles of different sizes and mechanical properties. Examples:
Till: directly deposited by the glacier E.g., ablation (morraines) and lodgement (hardpan) tills glacio-fluvial: are formed after the ice melted due to outwash glacio-lacustrine: formed by the deposition of fine soils in large bodies of water, they are usually layered

Formation, Transport and Deposition of Soils

Glacial Soils

Formation, Transport and Deposition of Soils

Alluvial Soils (fluvial soils): are soils transported by streams and rivers. Very common soils, found in rivers flood plains. They usually have large groundwater aquifers. These soils are segregated by size along the length of the river (large particles gravels and sand - at the origin and small particles at the delta silts and clays). In arid areas, the evaporation of water leaves cemented agents that are deposited in the soil forming very hard materials known as caliche.

Formation, Transport and Deposition of Soils

Lacustrian and Marine Soils: lacustrian are soils deposited in lakes, while marine soils are deposited in the sea and ocean floor. Grain sizes vary from silts to clays and deposited in uniform layers or poor engineering properties Deltas are a common example of marine soils (Mississippi, Nile, Amazon, and Parana deltas).

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Formation, Transport and Deposition of Soils

Aolian Soils: are soils transported and deposited by the wind. They are very poorly graded (uniform) and show very high porosity. The transport mechanisms include: suspension (dust storms), saltation (dunes), and creep (dunes). Colluvial Soils: are soils transported by gravity, either slowly or fast. Examples: downhill creep, landslide, mudflow.

Bibliography
Coduto, D. (1999). Geotechnical Engineering. Principles and Practice. Prentice-Hall. McCarthy, D. (1998). Essential of Soil Mechanics and Foundation. Prentice-Hall. Budhu, M. (2005). Soil Mechanics and Foundations. Wiley. Encyclopedia Britannica (2001). Web Site. http://britanica.com Liu, C. and Evert, J. B. (2001). Soils and Foundations. Prentice-Hall.