College of Engineering and Industrial

Technology

Submitted To:
Mr. Cabugayan

Submitted By”
• NIST STANDARD
The NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) Standard can be as
accurate as .001% with roughly the same TCR as Precision Wirewound Resistors
and are very stable. These are used as a standard in verifying the accuracy of
resistive measuring devices. They are normally the Primary Standards of a
company's test lab.
They are returned to the NIST for measurement and their accuracy is tracked
through out the standards life to determine the Standard's stability. Most companies
will have two sets of standards so that they can continue to measure while one set of
standards are being measured by the NIST . They will alternate returning these NIST
Standards to the NIST , one set one year and the other set the next year. For
extremely accurate measurements, the Standard with the longest history and the best
stability will be used. If erratic readings are received from the NIST over a period of
years, the Standard is retired. Also, if the reading has significantly changed since the
last NIST reading, the standard is suspect and all measurements made using that
standard must be checked. Normally, a standard will take about 3 years to stabilize
and becomes more stable with time unless it has had excessive power applied or has
been dropped. These standards are generally stored in an oil bath at +25oC. During
measurement, a thermometer is placed in a cavity in the top of the Standard, called
the oil well, and the temperature is recorded for each measurement so that the exact
value can be determined.
• That is the value at +25oC plus or minus the change in value caused by the
temperature coefficient. Each standard will have a temperature correction chart for
exact values. Being stored in the oil bath prevents the Standard from being stressed
by changes in room temperature. These are highly precision devices and are
expensive to buy and expensive to maintain, but they are the primary resistor
reference for any test lab.
These resistors are furnished in a totally enclosed metal case and for values above
1 ohm, this enclosure is filled with mineral oil (other type of oil may contain additives
that can cause corrosion in later life). The values below 1 ohm may be built in an
enclosure that is perforated and these must be submersed in oil. If power is applied
without it being submersed, the Standard will be ruined.
All NIST Type Standards are equipped with provisions for two, three, or four
terminal measurements. The applied power is calculated and the temperature of the
Standard is monitored during test. The lowest power level consistent with sufficient
resolution to get the desired measurement is used (in the area of 0.01 watts) and any
appreciable rise in temperature will dictate that the measurement should be
suspended and the test set-up reviewed for ways to reduce the power level. These
Standards are rated for operation at room temperature only but their other
characteristics are the same as Precision Wirewound Resistors.
 POWER WIREWOUND RESISTORS
Power Wirewound Resistors are used when it is necessary to handle a lot of power. They will
handle more power per unit volume than any other resistor. Some of these resistors are free
wound similar to heater
• elements. These require some form of cooling in order to handle any
appreciable amount of power. Some are cooled by fans and others are
immersed in various types of liquid ranging from mineral oil to high density
silicone liquids. Most are wound on some type of winding form. These
winding forms vary. Some examples are ceramic tubes, ceramic rods,
heavily anodized aluminium, fibreglass mandrels, etc.
To achieve the maximum power rating in the smallest package size, the
core on which the windings are made must have a material with high heat
conductivity. It may be Steatite, Alumina, Beryllium Oxide, or in some cases
hard anodized Aluminium. Theoretically, the anodized Aluminium core has a
better heat conductivity than any other insulated material, with Beryllium
Oxide being very close. There are specific problems with the anodized
aluminium cores such as nicks in the coating, abrasion during capping and
controlling the anodized thickness. There are various shapes, oval, flat,
cylindrical, and most shapes are designed to optimize heat dissipation. The
more heat that can be radiated from the resistor, the more power that can
be safely applied.
There is a group of these called "Chassis Mounted Resistors". These are
generally cylindrical power resistors wound on a ceramic core moulded and
pressed into an aluminium heat sink and usually with heat radiating fins.
These are designed
• to be mounted to metal plates or a chassis to further conduct heat. This
result in a rating approximately 5 times or more its normal rating.
These resistors come in a variety of accuracy's and TCRs. They can be
• custom made as a cross breed between a Precision Resistor and a Power Resistor; capable of
handling more power than the standard Precision Wirewound but not as accurate. Practically
speaking, tolerances of 1% and temperature coefficients of 20 ppm can be achieved on all except
the parts that are coated with Vitreous Enamel and low values. The curing process for Vitreous (a
type of glass) requires extremely high heat and shrinks applying pressure to the winding. This
particular group normally will run tolerances of 10% with a TCR of 100ppm/oC. Power Resistors
come in a variety of ratings. Most are rated at +25oC and derated linearly to either +275oC or
+350oC. Again if the ambient temperature of operation is +275oC, no power can be applied and
at +125ooC 1/2 rated power can be applied.
These power rating are based on mounting the resistor in free air with the leads terminated at
the recommended point. On axial lead components, this is 3/8 of an inch from the body. If they
can be mounted closer, the resistor will run cooler or you can apply slightly more power and if
mounted further out, you must reduce the power. CAUTION, if mounted directly over and in
contact with a printed circuit board, the heat from the resistor can char the board if full power is
applied. I don't know of any PC Boards that are rated at +275oC.
Other means of increasing the amount of power you can apply
(a) bond the resistor to the chassis or other metal parts
(b) mount vertically to get the chimney effect (this is very helpful when using those wound
ceramic tubes)
(c) terminate as close to the body as practical
(d) submerse in oil (CAUTION some types of resistor coating, particularly silicone based coatings
will disintegrate when immersed in oil and heated). This will increase the rating as much as 5
times. or reduce the temperature rise of the resistor due to self heating.
The small power resistor can serve a two fold purpose, that is to fulfil it's purpose as a
• resistor and act as a heater in an enclosure. Some users have used them in crystal
ovens to maintain the crystal at the desired temperature. It makes a reasonably
cheap off the shelf heater that comes in a variety of wattage's , sizes and values.
One unique type of power resistor is the "Bathtub Boat Type". This consists of
resistance wire wound on a fibreglass cord.. This is a continuously wound strip, cut
into strips of the appropriate length with leads crimped. These resistive elements are
placed in a ceramic shell (boat) and an highly filled cement is used to fasten these in
the boat. The filler often used in the cement is a ceramic material with high heat
conductivity. These are very inexpensive, no effort is made to achieve tight
tolerances, low TCRs, and the range of values is extremely limited. They are often
found as surge resistors in TVs and other electronic /electrical equipment. Their main
selling point is low cost. They are often sold with an enamel coating for a low power
precision wirewound resistor that is even lower in cost.
One more item to consider, Power Wirewounds are made using alloys with melt
temperatures ranging from +1200o C to +1500o C and may be operated cherry red
without failure for short periods of time, however the resistance value and TCR will
change significantly and the insulating material will severely degrade. The bathtub
boat type can not be subjected to this type of overload, the fibreglass winding form
will disintegrate.
• FUSE RESISTORS
Fuse Resistors serve a dual purpose, a resistor and a fuse. They
are designed so that they will open with a large surge current. The
fusing current is calculated based on the amount of energy required
to melt the resistive material (the melt temperature plus the amount
of energy required to vaporize the resistive material).
These resistors will normally run hotter than a normal precision or
power resistor so that a momentary surge will bring the resistive
element up to fusing temperature. Some designs create a hot spot
inside the resistor to assist in this fusing. Calculations are made and
samples are produced to verify the calculations. The major unknown
is the heat transfer of the materials, which can be quite significant
for pulse of long duration, and is very difficult to calculate. Mounting
of these devices is critical because it will effect the fusing current.
These are quite often made to mount in fuse clips for more accurate
fusing characteristics.
• CARBON COMPOSITION
Carbon composition resistors were once the most common resistor on the market. They still
have a very large market and prices are highly competitive. They are made from carbon rods cut
in the appropriate length then moulded with leads attached. The mix of the carbon can be varied
to change the resistivity for the desired values.
High values are much more readily available. Very low values are more difficult to achieve. A
5% tolerance is available. This is usually done by measuring and selecting values. Normal
tolerances without measurement and selection is in the area of 20%.
The temperature coefficient of resistance is in the range of 1000 ppm/oC and is negative, that
is when the temperature goes up the resistance goes down and when the temperature goes
down, the resistance goes up. This is due to the carbon particles being relaxed (with increase in
temperature) and being compressed (with the reduction in temperature).
These resistors also has a voltage coefficient. That is the resistance will change with applied
voltage, the greater the voltage, the greater the change. In addition to a power rating, they also
have a voltage rating. (The wirewound voltage rating is determined by the value and the wattage
rating). The voltage rating of Carbon Composition Resistors is determined by physical size as
well as the value and wattage rating.
One more item to consider is that due to their construction, they generate noise and this noise
level varies with value and physical size. The power capability in relation to physical size is
greater than Precision Wirewounds but less than Power Wirewounds.
• CARBON FILM RESISTORS
Carbon Film Resistors have many of the same characteristics as carbon
composition resistors. The material is similar therefore they have noise, a voltage
coefficient, the TCR can be much lower because the formula can be varied to achieve
this, the tolerance is much tighter due to the difference in manufacturing processes.
The Carbon Film Resistor is made by coating ceramic rods with a mixture of
carbon materials. This material is applied to these rods in a variety of means, the one
most familiar to me are dipping, rolling, printing , or spraying the rods in the
appropriate solution. The thickness of the coating can be determined by the viscosity
of the solution. This as well as the material composition will determine the ohms /
square. Some of you may not be familiar with this term. It simply means that if a
material has a resistivity of 100 ohms / square, one square inch with have the same
resistance as 1 square mm, or 1 square foot or 1 square yard or 1 square mile all
equalling 100 ohms but the power handling capability is proportional to the size.
One batch of material can produce resistors in a wide range of values. These rods
are cut to the length required for a specific size of resistor. These rods can then be
spiral cut to a wide range of values. The original method of spiralling these was done
with grinding wheels on a machine similar to a lathe. I am sure that later processes
use lasers that are programmed to cut to specific values. The maximum ohmic value
of this group is the highest in the discrete resistor group.
Tolerance of 1% can be achieved with out measuring and selecting. Tolerance of
less than 1% can be achieved by measuring and selecting. You should use caution in
getting tight tolerances in this type because the temperature coefficient, voltage
coefficient and stability may mean that it is only good for that tolerance at the time it
was installed. The TCR of carbon film resistors is in the neighbourhood of 100 to 200
ppm and is generally negative. Measuring and selecting can yield even tighter TCRs.
The frequency response of this type of resistor is among the best, far better than
• Wirewounds, and much better that carbon composition. The wirewound resistors are inductive at
lower frequencies and values and somewhat capacitive at higher frequencies regardless of value.
Also wirewound resistors will have a resonant frequency. Carbon Composition Resistors will be
predominately capacitive .

• METAL FILM RESISTORS

Metal Film resistors are the best compromise of all resistors. They are not as accurate and
have a higher temperature coefficient of resistance and are not as stable as Precision
Wirewounds. They are more accurate, do not have a voltage coefficient, have a lower
temperature coefficient than Carbon Film. TCRs of 50 to 100 ppm can be achieved.
They have a very low noise level when properly manufactured. In fact some of the screening
processes measure the noise level to determine if there are problems in a particular batch of
resistors.
Metal film resistors are manufactured by an evaporation/deposition process. That is the base
metal is vaporized in a vacuum and deposited on a ceramic rod or wafer. Several attempts have
been made to vaporize low TCR materials and deposit on these substrates, but to my knowledge,
these attempts have not been successful. This is partially due to the different boiling points of the
various base metals in these alloys (I use the word alloy not entirely accurately, for these
materials are not true alloys but amalgamations --- they do not bond to form a molecule as does
a true alloy). The very low TCR resistive materials are heat treated to achieve the resistivity and
low TCR. This is not compatible with an evaporation process.
The frequency characteristics of this type are excellent and better than Carbon Films. The one
area that carbon films exceed metal films is the maximum values. Carbon films can achieve
higher maximum values than any other group.
• FOIL RESISTORS
Foil resistors are similar in characteristics as metal films. Their main advantages
are better stability than metal films and lower TCRs. They have excellent frequency
response, low TCR, good stability, and very accurate. They are manufactured by
rolling the same wire materials as used in precision wirewound resistors to make thin
strips of foil. This foil is then bonded to a ceramic substrate and etched to produce the
value required. They can be trimmed further by abrasive processes, chemical
machining or heat treating to achieve the desired tolerance. Their main disadvantage
is the maximum value is less than Metal Film Resistors.
The accuracy is about the same as metal film resistors, the TCR and stability
approaches Precision Wirewounds but somewhat less because the rolling process
and the packaging process produce stresses in the foil. The resistive materials used
in Precision Wirewound Resistors is very sensitive to stresses which result in
instability and higher TCRs. Any stresses on these material will result in a change in
the resistance value and TCR, the greater the stress, the larger the change. This type
can be used as strain gauges, strain being measured as a change in the resistance.
When used as a strain gauge, the foil is bonded to a flexible substrate that can be
mounted on a part where the stress is to be measured.
• FILAMENT RESISTORS
The Filament Resistors are similar to the Bathtub Boat Resistor except they are not
packaged in a ceramic shell (boat). The individual resistive element with the leads
already crimped is coated with an insulating material, generally a high temperature
varnish. These are used in applications where tolerance, TCR, and stability are not
important but the cost is the governing consideration. The cost on this type is slightly
higher that carbon composition and the electrical characteristics are better.
POWER FILM RESISTORS
Power film resistors are similar in manufacture to their respective metal film or
carbon film resistors. They are manufactured and rated as power resistors, with the
power rating being the most important characteristic. Power Film Resistors are
available in higher maximum values than the Power Wirewound Resistors and have a
very good frequency response. They are generally used in applications requiring
good frequency response and/or higher maximum values. Generally for power
applications, the tolerance is wider, the temperature rating is changed so that under
full load resistor will not exceed the maximum design temperature, and the physical
sizes are larger, and in some cases, the core may be made from a higher heat
conductive material and other means to help radiate heat.
 11. PHOTORESISTORS AND THERMISTORS

• These are special types of resistors that change

resistance when heat or light is applied. Photoresistors
are made from semiconductive materials, such as
cadmium sulfide. Increasing the light level will decreases
the resistance. This type also called LDR (Light
Dependent Resistor). Thermistors are temperature
sensitive resistors. Increasing the temperature will
decreases the resistance (in most cases). This type also
called Thermistor NTC (Negative Temperature
Coefficient). The resiprocal type is Thermistor PTC
(Positive Temperature Coefficient). Increasing the
temperature will increases its resistance.
• Variable resistors provide varying degrees of resistance that can be
set with the turn of a knob. Special kinds of variable resistors include
potensiometers, rheostats, and trimmers. Potensiometers and
rheostats are essentially the same thing, but rheostats are used
specially for high power AC electricity, whereas potensiometers
typically are used with lower level DC electricity. Both
potensiometers and rheostats are designed for frequent adjustment.
Trimmers, on the other hand, are miniature potensiometers that are
adjusted infrequently and usually come with pins that can be
inserted into pcb. They are used for fine tuning circuits (eg. : fine
tuning a circuit that goes astray as it ages), and they are usually
hidden within a circuits enclosure box.. Variable resistors come with
2 or 3 terminals. There are 2 kinds of taper, ie. : linear tapered and
nonlinear tapered (logarithmic). The 'taper' describes the way in
which the resistance changes as the control knob is twisted. Linear
taper usually has coded as 'A' while nonlinear tapes has coded as
'B'.
 METAL OXIDE FILM

• This type is general purpose resistor. It uses a

ceramic core coated with a metal oxide film.
These resistors are mechanically and electrically
stable and readable during high temperature
operation. They contain a special paint on their
outer surfaces making them resistant to flames,
solvents, heat, and humidity. Typical resistances
range from 1 Ohm to 200 kOhm, with typical
tolerances of +/- 5 percent.
 FILAMENT
RESISTORS
• Filament resistors are similar to bathtub or boat
resistors except that they are not packaged in a
ceramic shell (boat). The individual resistive
element with the leads already crimped is coated
with an insulating material, generally a high
temeperature varnish. They are used in
applications where tolerance, TCR, and stability
are not important but the cost is the governing
consideration. The cost of this type is slightly
higher that of carbon composition and the
electrical characteristics are better.
 POWER FILM
• Power film resistors are similar in manufacture to metal
film or carbon film resistors. They are manufactured and
rated as power resistors, with the power rating being the
most important characteristic. Power film resistors are
available in higher maximum values than the power wire
wound resistors and have a very good frequency
response. They are generally used in applications
requiring good frequency response and/or higher
maximum values. Generally, for power applications the
tolerance is wider. The temperature rating is changed so
that under full load, the resistor will not exceed the
maximum design temperature. The physical sizes are
larger and, in some cases, the core may be made from a
more head conductive material and other means
employed to help radiate heat.
• How to read Resistor Color Codes
• First the code
• BlackBrownRedOrangeYellowGreenBlueVioletG
rayWhite0123456789The mnemonic
• Bad Boys Ravish Only Young Girls But Violet
Gives Willingly *
• Black is also easy to remember as zero because
of the nothingness common to both.
How to read the code
• First find the tolerance band, it will typically be gold ( 5%) and sometimes silver
(10%).
• Starting from the other end, identify the first band - write down the number associated
with that color; in this case Blue is 6.
• Now 'read' the next color, here it is red so write down a '2' next to the six. (you should
have '62' so far.)
• Now read the third or 'multiplier' band and write down that number of zeros.
• In this example it is two so we get '6200' or '6,200'. If the 'multiplier' band is Black (for
zero) don't write any zeros down.
• If the 'multiplier' band is Gold move the decimal point one to the left. If the 'multiplier'
band is Silver move the decimal point two places to the left. If the resistor has one
more band past the tolerance band it is a quality band.
• Read the number as the '% Failure rate per 1000 hour' This is rated assuming full
wattage being applied to the resistors. (To get better failure rates, resistors are
typically specified to have twice the needed wattage dissipation that the circuit
produces). Some resistors use this band for temco information. 1% resistors have
three bands to read digits to the left of the multiplier. They have a different
temperature coefficient in order to provide the 1% tolerance.
• At 1% the temperature coefficient starts to become an important factor. at +/-200
ppm a change in temperature of 25 Deg C causes a value change of up to 1%
• BS 1852 Coding for resistor values
• BS 1852(British Standard 1852). The letter
R is used for Ohms and K for Kohms M for
Megohms and placed where the decimal
point would go.
• At the end is a letter that represents
tolerance Where M=20%, K=10%, J=5%,
G=2%, and F=1% D=.5% C=.25 B=.1%
• Common surface mount coding
• The third or forth digit is the multiplier
• Thus 103 is a 10K resistor
• 475 is a 4.7M resistor
• Measure resistors with our M300 Volt Ohm meter
• ELECTRICAL RESISTORS
• Resistance is a property of every electrical component. At times,
its effects will be undesirable. However, resistance is used in many
varied ways. RESISTORS are components manufactured to
possess specific values of resistance. They are manufactured in
many types and sizes. When drawn using its schematic
representation, a resistor is shown as a series of jagged lines, as
illustrated in figure 1-29.
 Types of Resistor

• PRECISION WIREWOUND
The Precision Wirewound is a highly accurate resistor with a very low TCR and can be accurate
within .005%. A temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) of as little a 3 part per million per
degree Celsius (3ppm/oC) can be achieved. However these components are too expensive for
general use and are normally used in highly accurate DC applications. The frequency response
of this type is not good. When used in an rf application all Precision Wirewound Resistors will
have a low Q resonant frequency. The power handling capability is very small. These are
generally used in highly accurate DC measuring equipment, and reference resistors for voltage
regulators and decoding networks.
The accuracy is maintained at 25oC(degrees Celsius) and will change with temperature. The
maximum value available is dependent upon physical size and is much lower than most other
types of resistor. Their power rating is approximately 1/10 of a similar physical size in a carbon
composition. They are rated for operation at +85oC or +125oC with maximum operating
temperature not to exceed +145oC. This means that full rated power can be applied at +85 ( 125)
oC with no degradation in performance. It may be operated above +125 (85) oC if the load is
reduced. The derating is linear, rated load at +125(85) oC and no load at +145oC. Life is
generally rated for 10,000 hours at rated temperature and rated load. The allowable change in
resistance under these conditions is 0.10%. Extended life can be achieved if operated at lower
temperatures and reduced power levels. End of life requirements are generally defined by the
manufacturer or in some case by user specification. Some degradation in performance can be
expected. In some cases, particularly if the tolerance is very low and the TC is low, the rated
power is reduced to improve resistor stability through life. Precision Resistors regardless of type,
are designed for maximum accuracy and not to carry power. The materials used in these
resistors are highly stable heat treated materials that do change under extended heat and
mechanical stress. The manufacturing processes are designed to remove any stresses induced