PHYSICS CHAPTER 13

1
is defined as the
central core of an
atom that is
positively
charged and
contains protons
and neutrons.
CHAPTER 13: Nucleus
(3 Hours)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
2
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
State the properties of proton and neutron.
Define
proton number
nucleon number
isotopes
Use
to represent a nucleus.
Explain the working principle and the use of mass
spectrometer to identify isotopes.
Learning Outcome:
w
w
w
.
k
m
p
h
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m
a
t
r
i
k
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e
d
u
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m
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/
p
h
y
s
i
c
s

13.1 Properties of nucleus (1 hour)
X
A
Z
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
3
13.1.1 Nuclear structure
A nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons that
known as nucleons (is defined as the particles found inside
the nucleus) as shown in Figure 13.1.
13.1 Properties of nucleus
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Figure 13.1
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
4
Proton and neutron are characterised by the following properties
in Table 13.1.







For a neutral atom,
The number of protons inside the nucleus
= the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus
This is because the magnitude of an electron charge
equals to the magnitude of a proton charge but opposite
in sign.
Proton (p) Neutron (n)
Charge (C)
Mass (kg)
+e
0
27
10 672 . 1

27
10 675 . 1

) 10 60 . 1 (
19

) uncharged (
Table 13.1
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
5
Nuclei are characterised by the number and type of nucleons
they contain as shown in Table 13.2.











Any nucleus of elements in the periodic table called a nuclide is
characterised by its atomic number Z and its mass number A.
The nuclide of an element can be represented as in the Figure
13.2.
Table 13.2
Number Symbol Definition
Atomic number
Z The number of protons in a nucleus
Neutron number
N The number of neutrons in a nucleus
Mass (nucleon)

number
A The number of nucleons in a nucleus
Relationship :
(13.1)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
6
The number of protons Z is not necessary equal to the number
of neutrons N.
e.g. :
Figure 13.2
Atomic number
Mass number
Element X
Mg
24
12
S
32
16
; Pt
195
78
;
2 1 = Z
12 = = Z A N
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
7
Since a nucleus can be modeled as tightly packed sphere
where each sphere is a nucleon, thus the average radius of
the nucleus is given by
3
1
0
A R R =
(13.2)
where
nucleus of radius average : R
fm 1.2 OR m 10 2 . 1 constant :
15
0

= R
number (nucleon) mass : A
femtometre (fermi)
m 10 1 fm 1
15
=
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
8
Based on the periodic table of element, Write down the symbol of
nuclide for following cases:
a. Z =20 ; A =40
b. Z =17 ; A =35
c. 50 nucleons ; 24 electrons
d. 106 nucleons ; 48 protons
e. 214 nucleons ; 131 protons
Solution :
a. Given Z =20 ; A =40


c. Given A=50 and Z=number of protons = number of electrons =24

Example 1 :
X
A
Z
Ca
40
20
X
A
Z
Cr
50
24
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
9
What is meant by the following symbols?


State the mass number and sign of the charge for each entity
above.
Solution :
Example 2 :
n
1
0
p
1
1
; e
0
1
;
n
1
0
p
1
1
e
0
1
Neutron ; A=1
Charge :
neutral (uncharged)
Proton ; A=1
Charge : positively charged
Electron ; A=0
Charge : negatively charged
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
10
Complete the Table 13.3.
Example 3 :
Table 13.3
Element
nuclide
Number of
protons
Number of
neutrons
Total charge
in nucleus
Number of
electrons
H
1
1
N
14
7
Na
23
11
Co
59
27
Be
9
4
O
16
8
S
31
16
Cs
133
55
U
238
92
16 15 16e 16
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
11
is defined as the nuclides/elements/atoms that have the
same atomic number Z but different in mass number A.
From the definition of isotope, thus the number of protons or
electrons are equal but different in the number of neutrons
N for two isotopes from the same element.
For example :
Hydrogen isotopes:




Oxygen isotopes:
13.1.2 Isotope
H
1
1
H
2
1
H
3
1
: Z=1, A=1, N=0
: Z=1, A=2, N=1
: Z=1, A=3, N=2
proton ) p (
1
1
deuterium ) D (
2
1
tritium ) T (
3
1
O
16
8
O
17
8
O
18
8
: Z=8, A=16, N=8
: Z=8, A=17, N=9
: Z=8, A=18, N=10
equal
equal not equal
not equal
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
12
Mass spectrometer is a device that detect the presence of
isotopes and determines the mass of the isotope from known
mass of the common or stable isotope.
Figure 13.3 shows a schematic diagram of a Bainbridge mass
spectrometer.
13.1.3 Bainbridge mass spectrometer
Figure 13.3

+

-

+

+

+

+

+

+

-

-

-

-

-

-

2
B

1
B

1
r
2
r
S
1
S
2
S
3
Photographic plate
Plate P
1
Plate P
2
Ion source

Ions beam

Evacuated
chamber

1
m
2
m
d A
Separation
between isotopes
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
13





+
+
+
+

Plate P
1 Plate P
2
Working principle
Ions from an ion source such as a discharge tube are narrowed
to a fine beam by the slits S
1
and S
2
.
The ions beam then passes through a velocity selector (plates
P
1
and P
2
) which uses a uniform magnetic field B
1
and a uniform
electric field E that are perpendicular to each other.
The beam with selected velocity v passes through the velocity
selector without deflection and emerge from the slit S
3
. Hence,
the force on an ion due to the magnetic field B
1
and the electric
field E are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction (Figure
13.4).
v

+
E
F

B
F

Using Flemings
left hand rule.
Figure 13.4
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
14
Thus the selected velocity is





The ions beam emerging from the slit S
3
enter an evacuated
chamber of uniform magnetic field B
2
which is perpendicular to
the selected velocity v. The force due to the magnetic field B
2

causes an ion to move in a semicircle path of radius r given by
E B
F F =
qE qvB =

90 sin
1
1
B
E
v =
c B
F F =
r
mv
qvB
2
2
90 sin =

q B
mv
r
2
=
and
1
B
E
v =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
15



Since the magnetic fields B
1
and B
2
and the electric field E are
constants and every ion entering the spectrometer contains the
same amount of charge q, therefore



If ions of masses m
1
and m
2
strike the photographic plate with
radii r
1
and r
2
respectively as shown in Figure 13.3 then the
ratio of their masses is given by
km r =
and constant
2 1
= =
q B B
E
k
m r
2
1
2
1
r
r
m
m
= (13.4)
q B B
mE
r
2 1
= (13.3)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
16
A beam of singly charged ions of isotopes Ne-20 and Ne-22 travels
straight through the velocity selector of a Bainbridge mass
spectrometer. The mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic
fields in the velocity selector are 0.4 MV m
1
and 0.7 T respectively.
These ions then enter a chamber of uniform magnetic flux density
1.0 T. Calculate
a. the selected velocity of the ions,
b. the separation between two isotopes on the photographic plate.
(Given the mass of Ne-20 = 3.32 10
26
kg; mass of Ne-22 =
3.65 10
26
kg and charge of the beam is 1.60 10
19
C)
Solution :
a. The selected velocity of the ions is
Example 4 :
T 0 . 1 T; 7 . 0 ; m V 10 4 . 0
2 1
1 6
= = =

B B E
1
B
E
v =
7 . 0
10 4 . 0
6

= v
1 5
s m 10 71 . 5

= v
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
17
Solution :
b. The radius of the circular path made by isotope Ne-20 is




and the radius of the circular path made by isotope Ne-22 is




Therefore the separation between the isotope of Ne is given by
T 0 . 1 T; 7 . 0 ; m V 10 4 . 0
2 1
1 6
= = =

B B E
q B B
E m
r
2 1
1
1
=
m 119 . 0 =
( )( )
( )( )( )
19
6 26
1
10 60 . 1 0 . 1 7 . 0
10 4 . 0 10 32 . 3

= r
m 130 . 0 =
( )( )
( )( )( )
19
6 26
2
10 60 . 1 0 . 1 7 . 0
10 4 . 0 10 65 . 3

= r
1 2
d d d = A
1 2
2 2 r r d = A
( )
1 2
2 r r =
( ) 119 . 0 130 . 0 2 =
m 10 2 . 2
2
= Ad
Figure 13.3
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
18
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Define mass defect and binding energy.
Use formulae


Identify the average value of binding energy per
nucleon of stable nuclei from the graph of binding
energy per nucleon against nucleon number.
Learning Outcome:
w
w
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k
m
p
h
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m
a
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r
i
k
.
e
d
u
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m
y
/
p
h
y
s
i
c
s

13.2 Binding energy and mass defect (2 hours)
2
mc E A =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
19
13.2.1 Einstein mass-energy relation
From the theory of relativity leads to the idea that mass is a
form of energy.
Mass and energy can be related by the following relation:





e.g. The energy for 1 kg of substance is
13.2 Binding energy and mass defect
2
mc E =
(13.5)
where
mass rest : m
) s m 10 00 3 ( in vacuum light of speed :
1 8
. c
energy of amount : E
J 10 00 . 9
16
= E
2
mc E =
2 8
) 10 00 . 3 )( 1 ( =
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
20
Unit conversion of mass and energy
The electron-volt (eV)
is a unit of energy.
is defined as the kinetic energy gained by an electron in
being accelerated by a potential difference (voltage) of 1
volt.



The atomic mass unit (u)
is a unit of mass.
is defined as exactly the mass of a neutral carbon-12
atom.

J 10 60 . 1 eV 1
19
=
J 10 60 1 eV 10 Me 1
13 6
= = . V
12
1
12
C of mass
u 1
12
6
=
kg 10 66 1 u 1
27
= .
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
21
1 atomic mass unit (u) can be converted into the unit of
energy by using the mass-energy relation (eq. 13.5).



in joule,


in eV/c
2
or MeV/c
2
,

J 10 49 . 1
10
= E
2
mc E =
2 8 27
) 10 00 . 3 )( 10 66 . 1 ( =

J 10 49 . 1 u 1
10
=
2 6
19
10
eV/ 10 5 . 931
10 60 . 1
10 49 . 1
c E =

2 6
eV/ 10 5 . 931 u 1 c =
2
MeV/ 5 . 931 u 1 c =
OR
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
22
The mass of a nucleus (M
A
) is always less than the total mass
of its constituent nucleons (Zm
p
+Nm
n
) i.e.




Thus the difference in this mass is given by



where Am is called mass defect and is defined as the mass
difference between the total mass of the constituent
nucleons and the mass of a nucleus.
The reduction in mass arises because the act of combining
the nucleons to form the nucleus causes some of their mass
to be released as energy.
Any attempt to separate the nucleons would involve them
being given this same amount of energy. This energy is called
the binding energy of the nucleus.
13.2.2 Mass defect
( )
n p
Nm Zm M
A
+ <
where
neutron a of mass :
n
m
proton a of mass :
p
m
( )
A
M Nm Zm m + = A
n p
(13.6)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
23
The binding energy of a nucleus is defined as the energy
required to separate completely all the nucleons in the
nucleus.
The binding energy of the nucleus is equal to the energy
equivalent of the mass defect. Hence






Since the nucleus is viewed as a closed packed of nucleons,
thus its stability depends only on the forces exist inside it.
The forces involve inside the nucleus are
repulsive electrostatic (Coulomb) forces between
protons and
attractive forces that bind all nucleons together in the
nucleus.
13.2.3 Binding energy
( )
2
B
c m E A =
(13.7) Binding energy
in joule
Speed of light in
vacuum
Mass defect in kg
13.2.4 Nucleus stability
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
24
These attractive force is called nuclear force and is responsible
for nucleus stability.
The general properties of the nuclear force are summarized
as follow :
The nuclear force is attractive and is the strongest force
in nature.
It is a short range force . It means that a nucleon is
attracted only to its nearest neighbours in the nucleus.
It does not depend on charge; neutrons as well as protons
are bound and the nuclear force is same for both.
e.g.


The nuclear force depends on the binding energy per
nucleon.
proton-proton (p-p)
neutron-neutron (n-n)
proton-neutron (p-n)
The magnitude of nuclear
forces are same.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
25
Note that a nucleus is stable if the nuclear force greater than
the Coulomb force and vice versa.
The binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus is a measure of
the nucleus stability where






Figure 13.5 shows a graph of the binding energy per nucleon as
a function of mass (nucleon) number A.
) number( Nucleon
) ( energy Binding
nucleon per energy Binding
B
A
E
=
A
mc
2
nucleon per energy Binding
A
= (13.8)
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
26
Mass number A
B
i
n
d
i
n
g

e
n
e
r
g
y

p
e
r

n
u
c
l
e
o
n

(
M
e
V
/
n
u
c
l
e
o
n
)

Greatest stability
Figure 13.5
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
27
From Figure 13.5,
The value of E
B
/A rises rapidly from 1 MeV/nucleon to 8
MeV/nucleon with increasing mass number A for light nuclei.
For the nuclei with A between 50 and 80, the value of E
B
/A
ranges between 8.0 and 8.9 Mev/nucleon. The nuclei in
these range are very stable. The maximum value of the
curve occurs in the vicinity of nickel, which has the most
stable nucleus.
For A > 62, the values of E
B
/A decreases slowly, indicating
that the nucleons are on average less tightly bound.
For heavy nuclei with A between 200 to 240, the binding
energy is between 7.5 and 8.0 MeV/nucleon. These nuclei
are unstable and radioactive.
Figure 13.6 shows a graph of neutron number N against atomic
number Z for a number of stable nuclei.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
28
Atomic number Z
N
e
u
t
r
o
n

n
u
m
b
e
r
,

N

N=Z
Line of
stability
Figure 13.6
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
29
From Figure 13.6,
The stable nuclei are represented by the blue dots, which lie
in a narrow range called the line of stability.
The dashed line corresponds to the condition N=Z.
The light stable nuclei contain an equal number of
protons and neutrons (N=Z) but in heavy stable nuclei
the number of neutrons always greater than the number
of protons (above Z =20) hence the line of stability
deviates upward from the line of N=Z.
This means as the number of protons increase, the
strength of repulsive coulomb force increases which
tends to break the nucleus apart.
As a result, more neutrons are needed to keep the
nucleus stable because neutrons experience only the
attractive nuclear force.
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
30
Calculate the binding energy of an aluminum nucleus in MeV.
(Given mass of neutron, m
n
=1.00867 u ; mass of proton,
m
p
=1.00782 u ; speed of light in vacuum, c=3.0010
8
m s
1
and
atomic mass of aluminum, M
Al
=26.98154 u)
Solution :


The mass defect of the aluminum nucleus is
Example 5 :
( ) Al
27
13
Al
27
13
13 = Z
and
13 27 = N
14 = N
u 2415 . 0 = Am
( ) ( ) | | 98154 . 26 00867 . 1 14 00782 . 1 13 + =
( )
Al n p
M Nm Zm m + = A
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
31
Solution :
The binding energy of the aluminum nucleus can be calculated by
using two method.
1
st
method:







Thus the binding energy in MeV is
( )( )
27
10 66 . 1 2415 . 0

= Am
kg 10 0089 . 4
28
=
kg 10 66 1 u 1
27
= .
( )( )
2
8 28
B
10 00 . 3 10 0089 . 4 =

E
J 10 608 . 3
11
B

= E
( )
2
B
c m E A =
in kg
MeV 226
B
= E
13
11
B
10 60 . 1
10 608 . 3

= E
J 10 60 1 MeV 1
13
= .
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
32
Solution :
2
nd
method:
( )
2
B
c m E A =
MeV 225
B
= E
2
2
u 1
MeV/ 5 . 931
c
c
m
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
A =
2
MeV/ 5 . 931 u 1 c =
in u
( )
2
2
u 1
MeV/ 5 . 931
u 2415 . 0 c
c
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
33
Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of a boron nucleus
in J/nucleon.
(Given mass of neutron, m
n
=1.00867 u ; mass of proton,
m
p
=1.00782 u ; speed of light in vacuum, c=3.0010
8
m s
1
and
atomic mass of boron, M
B
=10.01294 u)
Solution :



The mass defect of the boron nucleus is

Example 6 :
( ) B
10
5
B
10
5
5 = Z
and
5 10 = N
5 = N
u 06951 . 0 = Am
( ) ( ) | | 01294 . 10 00867 . 1 5 00782 . 1 5 + =
( )
B n p
M Nm Zm m + = A
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
34
Solution :
The binding energy of the boron nucleus is given by





Hence the binding energy per nucleon is
( )( )( )
2
8 27
10 00 . 3 10 66 . 1 06951 . 0 =

J 10 04 . 1
11
B

= E
( )
2
B
c m E A =
J/nucleon 10 04 . 1
12
B

=
A
E
10
10 04 . 1
11
B

=
A
E
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
35
Why is the uranium-238 nucleus less stable than carbon-12
nucleus ? Give an explanation by referring to the repulsive
coulomb force and the binding energy per nucleon.
(Given mass of neutron, m
n
=1.00867 u ; mass of proton,
m
p
=1.00782 u ; speed of light in vacuum, c=3.0010
8
m s
1
; atomic
mass of carbon-12, M
C
=12.00000 u and atomic mass of uranium-
238, M
U
=238.05079 u )
Solution :
From the aspect of repulsive coulomb force :
Uranium-238 nucleus has 92 protons but the carbon-12
nucleus has only 6 protons.
Therefore the coulomb force inside uranium-238 nucleus
is or 15.3 times the coulomb force inside carbon-12

nucleus.
Example 7 :
( ) C
12
6
( ) U
238
92
|
.
|

\
|
6
92
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
36
Solution :
From the aspect of binding energy per nucleon:
Carbon-12 :
The mass defect :




The binding energy per nucleon:

C
12
6
6 = Z and 6 = N
( )
C n p
M Nm Zm m + = A
u 09894 . 0 = Am
( ) ( ) | | 00000 . 12 00867 . 1 6 00782 . 1 6 + =
( )
A
c m
A
E
2
C
B
A
=
|
.
|

\
|
( )
12
u 1
MeV/ 5 . 931
u 09894 . 0
2
2
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
n MeV/nucleo 68 . 7
C
B
=
|
.
|

\
|
A
E
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
37
Uranium-238 :
The mass defect :



The binding energy per nucleon:






Since the binding energy of uranium-238 nucleus less than the
binding energy of carbon-12 and the coulomb force inside uranium-
238 nucleus greater than the coulomb force inside carbon-12
nucleus therefore uranium-238 nucleus less stable than carbon-12
nucleus.
U
238
92
92 = Z and 146 = N
u 93447 . 1 = Am
( ) ( ) | | 05079 . 238 00867 . 1 146 00782 . 1 92 + = Am
( )
238
u 1
MeV/ 5 . 931
u 93447 . 1
2
2
U
B
c
c
A
E
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
n MeV/nucleo 57 . 7
U
B
=
|
.
|

\
|
A
E
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
38
Exercise 13.1 :
Given c =3.0010
8
m s
1
, m
n
=1.00867 u, m
p
=1.00782 u
1. Calculate the binding energy in joule of a deuterium nucleus.
The mass of a deuterium nucleus is 3.34428 10
27
kg.
ANS. : 2.7810
13
J
2. The mass of neon-20 nucleus is 19.99244 u. Calculate
the binding energy per nucleon of neon-20 nucleus in MeV
per nucleon.
ANS. : 8.03 MeV/nucleon
3. Determine the energy required to remove one neutron from an
oxygen-16 . The atomic mass for oxygen-16 is
15.994915 u

(Physics, 3
rd
edition, James S. Walker, Q39, p.1108)
ANS. : 15.7 MeV

( ) Ne
20
10
( ) O
16
8
PHYSICS CHAPTER 13
39
Next Chapter
CHAPTER 14 :
Nuclear reaction