QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY

Under the guidance of: MR. S.B VANJALE

AARTI KUMARI ROLL NO. 19 BTECH SEM VII (COMP II)

TOPICS
INTRODUCTION AND RELATED TERMS CLASSICAL CRYPTOGRAPHY QUBITS KEY DISTRIBUTION ALGORITHMS QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY FUTURE SCOPE CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION
PROCESS OF ENCODING IS CRYPTOGRAPHY

PROCESS OF DECODING INFORMATION IS CRYPTOANALYSIS

CRYPTOGRAPHY + CRYPTOANALYSIS CRYPTOLOGY

CRYPTO MEANS HIDDEN OR SECRET LOGY MEANS STUDY

WHATS THE USE OF CRYPTOGRAPHY

Communication between Alice and Bob, with Eve listening

CLASSICAL CRYPTOGRAPHY
CIPHERS MEANS CONCEALING A

MESSAGE
CLASSICAL CIPHER OPERATES ON AN

ALPHABET OF LETTERS(A-Z)
1.

2.

TYPES: SUBSTITUTION CIPHERS "WIKIPEDIA" encrypts as "ZLNLSHGLD TRANSPOSITION CIPHERS "Hello my name is Alice." would now be "olleH ym eman si ecilA."

ONE TIME PAD

EXAMPLE FOR ONE TIME PAD

Letters and punctuation marks encoded by numbers from 0 to 29

Encryption and decryption example for the one-time pad.

LIMITATIONS OF CLASSICAL CRYPTOGRAPHY

First, the security of many classical

cryptosystems is based on the hardness of problems such as integer factoring or the discrete logarithm problem.

Second, the theory of quantum computation has yielded new methods to tackle these mathematical problems in a much more efficient way.

QUBITS

BIT: MOST IMP. UNIT THE TWO DIFFERENT STATES CAN BE REPRESENTED IN VARIOUS WAYS, FOR Eg. BY A SIMPLE SWITCH OR BY A CAPACITOR. EVERY QUANTUM SYSTEM WITH AT LEAST TWO STATES CAN SERVE AS A QUBIT. THE SPIN OF AN ATOM OR THE POLARIZATION OF A LIGHT PARTICLE CAN REPRESENT THE STATE OF A QUBIT. EVEN A CAT WITH ITS TWO BASIC STATES DEAD AND ALIVE, INTRODUCED BY SCHRDINGER [1935].

KEY DISTRIBUTION
There are only two widely used methods of employing keys: secret-key distribution and public-key distribution.

SECRET KEY DISTRIBUTION :

Only one key is used by both bob and alice The same key is used to both encode and decode the plaintext. The code will remain uncracked as long as the key used remains secret.

PUBLIC KEY DISTRIBUTION :

A user chooses two interrelated keys. He lets anyone who wants to send him a message know how to encode it using one key. He makes this key public. The other key he keeps to himself.

KEY DISTRIBUTION PROBLEM

Both the secret-key and public-key methods of cryptology have unique flaws. The problem with public-key cryptology is that it's based on the staggering size of the numbers

The chief problem with secret key cryptology is how the two users agree on what secret key to use.

The problem with secret-key cryptology is that there's almost always a place for an unwanted third party to listen in and gain information.

KEY DISTRIBUTION IN QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY

QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY USES PHOTONS TO TRANSMIT A KEY.

TO CREATE A PHOTON, QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHERS USE LEDS, A SOURCE OF UNPOLARIZED LIGHT.

THE

THING ABOUT PHOTONS IS THAT ONCE THEY'RE POLARIZED, THEY CAN'T BE ACCURATELY MEASURED AGAIN, EXCEPT BY A FILTER LIKE THE ONE THAT INITIALLY PRODUCED THEIR CURRENT SPIN.

PHOTON

BECOME A KEY WITH THE HELP OF BINARY

CODE.

Example of key distribution

When Alice sends Bob her photons using an LED, she'll randomly polarize them through either the X or the + filters, so that each polarized photon has one of four possible states: (|), (--), (/) or ( \) [source: Vittorio].
Their conversation may sound a little like this: Bob: Plus Alice: Correct Bob: Plus Alice: Incorrect Bob: X Alice: Correct

ALGORITHMS
1.

SYMMETRIC-KEY ALGORITHM: same keys

2.

RC4 BLOWFISH

ASYMMETRIC KEY ALGORITHM: different keys

RSA ALGORITHM KNAPSACK ALGORITHM MD5 SHA

RSA ALGORITHM
RIVEST, SHAMIR AND ADLEMAN. STEPS:

1. 2. 3. 4. CHOOSE 2 LARGE PRIME NO.s P AND Q. CALCULATE N=P*Q. SELECT THE PUBLIC KEY (ENCRYPTION KEY) E SUCH THAT IT IS NOT A FACTOR OF (P-1) AND (Q-1). SELECT THE PRIVATE KEY (DECRYPTION KEY) D SUCH THAT THE FOLLOWING EQUATION IS TRUE: (D*E)MOD(P-1)*(Q-1) = 1. FOR ENCRYPTION, CALCULATE THE CIPHER TEXT CT FROM THE PLAIN TEXT PT AS: CT= PTE mod N. SEND CT AS THE CIPHER TEXT TO THE RECEIVER. FOR DECRYPTION, CALCULATE THE PLAIN TEXT PT FROM THE CIPHER TEXT CT AS FOLLOWS: PT= CTD mod N.

5. 6. 7.

KNAPSACK ALGORITHM
DEVELOPED BY RALPH MERKLE AND MARTIN HELLMAN BASED ON KNAPSACK PROBLEM.

GIVEN A PILE OF ITEMS, EACH WITH DIFFERENT WEIGHTS, IS IT POSSIBLE TO PUT SOME OF THEM IN A BAG IN SUCH A WAY THAT THE BAG HAS A CERTAIN WEIGHT.

e.g. IF THE KNAPSACK IS 1,7,8,12,14,20, THEN THE PLAIN TEXT AND THE RESULTING CIPHER TEXT WILL BE:

PLAIN TEXT 0 1 1 0 1 1 KNAPSACK 1 7 8 12 14 20 CIPHER TEXT 7+8+14+20=49

1 1 1 0 0 0 1 7 8 12 14 20 1+7+8=16

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 7 8 12 14 20 7+12+14=33

QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY
An

important and unique property of quantum cryptography is the ability of the two communicating users to detect the presence of any third party trying to gain knowledge of the key. Third party introduce some anomalies. Quantum cryptography is only used to produce and distribute a key, not to transmit any message data, with the help of photons.

Quantum cryptographic devices typically employ individual photons of light and take advantage of either the Heisenberg Uncertainty principle or Quantum Entanglement.

UNCERTAINITY
The effect arises because in quantum theory, certain pairs of physical properties are complementary in the sense that measuring one property necessarily disturbs the other. This statement is known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. The two complementary properties that are often used in quantum cryptography, are two types of photon's polarization, e.g. rectilinear (vertical and horizontal) and diagonal (at 45 and 135).

ENTANGLEMENT
It is a state of two or more quantum particles, e.g. photons, in which many of their physical properties are strongly correlated. The entangled particles cannot be described by specifying the states of individual particles and they may together share information in a form which cannot be accessed in any experiment performed on either of the particles alone.

BB84 PROTOCOL
1984:

Bennett and Brassard

Alice

generates two random bits, a1,a2 Alice prepares a qubit as follows:

Bits States

00 01 10 11
Alice

\ / + -

a1 determines which basis a2 is an encoded bit in that basis

then sends the qubit to Bob

Bob receives the qubit Bob chooses a random bit b1 and measures the qubit as follows: if b1=0, Bob measures in the (/ , \) basis if b1=1, Bob measures in the (+ , -)basis obtaining a bit b2 Alice and Bob publicly compare a1 and b1 if they are the same (Bob measured in the same basis that Alice prepared) then a2=b2 if they disagree, they discard that round This protocol is repeated (4+delta)n times

A1

B1

0 1 1 0

0 0 1 1

x x

With high probability, Alice and Bob have 2n successes

To check for Eves interference: Alice chooses n bits randomly and informs Bob Alice and Bob compare their results for these n bits If more than an acceptable number disagree, they abort evidence of Eves tampering (or a noisy channel)
Alice and Bob use the remaining n bits as a private key!

DRAWBACKS
Man

in the middle attack

Photon

number splitting attack

FUTURE SCOPE
Future

developments will focus on faster photon detectors, a major factor limiting the development of practical systems for widespread commercial use.
The

ultimate goal is to make QKD more reliable, integrate it with today's telecommunications infrastructure, and increase the transmission distance and rate of key generation.
As

of March 2007 the longest distance over which quantum key distribution has been demonstrated using optic fibre is 148.7 km, achieved by Los Alamos/NIST using the BB84

CONCLUSION
Quantum cryptography promises to revolutionize secure communication by providing security based on the fundamental laws of physics.

The devices for implementing such methods exist and the performance of demonstration systems is being continuously improved.

Any queries ?