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THEORY OF

)EQUATIONS )1
CONTENTS




The function
n n− 1 n− 2
f(x) = anx + an−1x + an− 2 x +

⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a1x + a0
Is called a polynomial of degree
n in x

The equation f)x) = 0 is called an


algebraic equation in x .
The quantity r such that

f)r) = 0

is called a root of the equation


and it may be real or complex
The Remainder Theorem

If R is the remainder of dividing f)x)


by ) x – r ) then f) r ) = R

Proof:
f)x) = p)x) )x – r)+ R
Substitute x = r in both sides
f)r) = p)r) )r – r)+ R
f) r ) = R
Corollary : Factorization

If r is a root of the equation f)x) = 0

then R = 0, f) r) = 0

f) x ) = )x – r) p) x )
The Fundamental Theorem
of Algebra
The algebraic equation of order n

has n roots )complex or real)

some of them may be repeated

)multiple roots)
If f ) x ) = 0 is an algebraic
equation of order n with real
coefficients then its complex
roots occur as complex
conjugate pairs

a+ib a-ib
Horner’s Division

Dividing a polynomial of order n


by the factor ) x – r )
n n− 1 n− 2
anx + an− 1x + an− 2 x + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a0
n− 1 n− 2 n− 3
= (x − r)(bn− 1x + bn − 2 x + bn − 3 x

+ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + b1x + b0 ) + R
n n− 1 n− 2
anx + an− 1x + an− 2 x + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a0
n− 1 n− 2 n− 3
= (x − r)(bn− 1x + bn − 2 x + bn − 3 x

+ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + b1x + b0 ) + R
n− 1 n− 2 n− 3
bn − 1 x + bn − 2 x + bn − 3 x + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + b1x + b0

Quotient
R Remainder
an = bn-1 → bn-1 = an

an-1 = bn-2 – r bn-1 →bn-2 = an-1 + r bn-1

an-2 = bn-3 – r bn-2 →bn-3 = an-2 + r bn-2

a 1 = bo – r b1 → bo = a1 + r b1

a o = R – r bo → R = ao + r b o
r an a n− 1 a n− 2 ...... a 1 ao
r b n− 1 r b n− 2 r b1 r b o
b n− 1 b n− 2 b n− 3 ...... b o R
Example

Find the quotient and the


remainder when dividing

f(x) = x3 – 10 x2 + 27 x – 18
by ) x – 2 )

Also find f) 2 )
2 1 − 10 27 − 18
2
1
2 1 − 10 27 − 18
2 − 16 22
1 −8 11 4
2 1 − 10 27 − 18
2
1 −8
Quotient
p)x) = x2 – 8 x + 11

Remainder

R = 4 = f(2)
Division by the factor
(ax − b)

f(x) = (ax − b)p(x) + R

1 b R
f(x) = (x − )p(x) +
a a a

f(x) = (x − b a)(ap(x)) + R
Example

Find the quotient and the


remainder when dividing
3
f(x) = 4x + x +1
by
(2 x − 1)
a= 2 b=1
f(x) 3 x 1
=2 x + +
2 2 2
f(x) 3 2 x 1
=2 x +0 x + +
2 2 2

1 1 1
2 0 2 2
2
1 1
1
2 2
2 1 1 1
1 1 1
2 0 2 2
2
1 1
1
2 2
2 1 1 1
R
p(x) a

2
p(x) = 2x + x + 1 R =2
3 2
f(x) = 4 x + 0x + x +1
1
4 0 1 1
2
2 1 1
4 2 2 2

ap(x) R
Example

Find the quotient and the


remainder when dividing
4 3
f(x) = x + 2x − 3x + 5

by 2
x − 5x + 6
(x − 2)(x − 3)
2 1 2 0 −3 5
2 8 16 26
1 4 8 13 31
3 2
f(x) = (x − 2)(x + 4x + 8x + 13) + 31

3 1 4 8 13
3 21 87
1 7 29 100
f(x) = (x − 2)[(x − 3)

]
(x2 + 7x + 29) + 100 + 31
2
p(x) = x + 7x + 29

R(x) = (x − 2)(100) + 31

= 100x - 169

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