Training & Development Needs Analysis

Training

Overview

Models of Learning
Reinforcement Theories Cybernetic & Information Theories Cognitive Theories & Problem Solving Experiential Learning Cycle

The learner and the organisation : transfer Model of Training Needs Analysis (TNA) : individual and organisational levels of analysis Special training and development needs : diversity management

Learning
Training and developmental activities are designed to bring about changes in behaviour Arnold, Cooper & Robertson (1998)

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice or experience Bass & Vaughan (1966)

How do we learn ? Psychological theories...

Reinforcement Theories

Pavlov (1904) Classical Conditioning making dogs dribble Skinner (1965) Operant Conditioning teaching pigeons ping-pong

Watson & Rayner (1920) little Albert

Nord (1969) application of Skinners positive reinforcement principles to org./mgmt practices N.B. Conditioning by punishment ?

Cybernetic & Information Theories

How information is received and monitored (human thermostats - Stammers & Patrick, 1975)

Power Source (muscular action)

Monitoring Process (receipt of cues through the senses) Feedback

Skills Analysis - what cues or stimuli an experienced worker is being guided by (e.g. typist : hunt & peck)

Cognitive Theories & Problem Solving

Reflect the way in which we learn to recognise and define problems or experiment to find solutions
trial & error deductive reasoning information seeking

Kohler (1973) Theory of Insight Learning or Discovery Learning (e.g. Chimps, bananas and sticks or Archimedes Eureka!!)

Gagns Hierarchy of Learning

8 major varieties of learning, hierarchically related, each building on earlier, more simple abilities (which therefore act as prerequisites for more complex abilities)
Signal Learning (classical conditioning) Stimulus-Response Learning (operant conditioning) Chaining (connecting sequence of 2+ S-R units) Verbal Association (learning verbal chains) Discrimination Learning (different responses to similar stimuli) Concept Learning (common response to different stimuli in gp) Rule Learning (a chain of 2 or more concepts I.e. if A then B) Problem Solving (recombining old rules into new ones)

Kolb (1974) : Learning Cycle

Concrete Testing implications of concepts in new situations experience

Experiential Learning
Observations & Reflections

Formation of abstract concepts & generalisations

Honey & Mumford (1986, 1992) : Learning Styles

activist : open-minded, actively involved, bored with
implementation

reflector : ponder experiences, cautious, back-seat, bigger

picture

theorist : adapt & integrate observations, vertical, logical,

hierarchical

pragmatist : try out new ideas to see if they work in practice

The Learner-Organisation Interaction (I)

Learner Motivation
Otto & Glaser (1970) : taxonomy of motivational factors in learning : achievement motivation, anxiety, approval, curiosity, acquisitiveness

Knowledge of results (feedback)

form of reinforcement Extrinsic KR Intrinsic KR Learning curves & plateau

Attitude formation & change

predispose learners to action having harmonious attitudes (Festingers concept of cognitive dissonance, 1957) group discussion, providing new information

The Learner-Organisation Interaction (II) Age

less brain cells, speeded performance declines short-term memory deteriorates (increased errors in cognitively complex tasks) Welford (1962) older less able to cope with large amounts of information and vocab. and comprehension increase (reasoning and numerical ability test scores decreased) Vernon (1960) rate of decline slowest in originally high scorers. Stimulation Education & Training offset decline in abilities

Transfer

Training transfer occurs when new learning is used in new settings beyond those employed for training purposes (Arnold, Cooper & Robertson, 1998) Positive Learning Transfer
when learning that has already taken place on one task assists later learning on another vertical positive transfer : one subject acts as a basis for another (e.g. maths to statistics) lateral positive transfer : occurs when the same type of stimulus requires the same response (e.g. flight simulators) N.B. On- vs Off-the-job Training

Negative Transfer
when an old learning or past experience can hinder performance on a new task; when the same stimuli requires a different response (e.g. driving on right hand side)

Factors that assist Transfer

Individual Understanding of general principles facilitated by discovery learning; issue of physical and psychological fidelity Overlearning practising beyond the level of minimum competence Association getting the trainee to associate new learning with other, previous, learning. Organisational Supportive culture ? Congruent norms/values/attitudes

Goldstein (1986, 1991, 1993) Model of Training Needs Analysis

Stage One : Establishing Organisational Commitment and Support

Identify whose co-operation is needed, i.e. management, workers, clients, other stakeholders. Project Parameters : rationale of approach(es), time needed, numbers of people involved, admin. (& other) support needed. Glaser & Taylor (1973)
collaborative approach highly motivated, team-like interface early and active contacts between parties

Goldstein (1993) advocates a liaison team

Stage Two : Organisational Analysis of Training Needs

Central Issue = how well is the organisation doing? N.B. Organisation does not have to be underperforming to need development Importance of the transfer climate : system-wide factors that may support/undermine training Goldstein (1993) : 4 stages of OA

Specify training goals (3 types) Determine training climate Identify legal constraints (vertical and horizontal) Determine resources available

Stage Three : Requirement Analysis

Goldstein (1993) : 6 stages determine target job to be assessed identify how needs assessment data best collected
interviews, observations, surveys, tests, records, SMEs, focus groups, work samples, etc.

determine who is going to provide necessary info ascertain key points of contact and their responsibilities anticipate problems and difficulties develop a TNA protocol

Stage Four : Needs Assessment Task Analysis

TA for TNA should provide a job specification (KSAs/competencies required). Training spec. derived from difference between employees current and ideal levels Reid & Barrington (1997) : 3 main TNA TA approaches (task identification & task element analysis)
Comprehensive Approach Key Task Analysis Problem-Centred Approach

Task fidelity (physical and psychological)

e.g. stages and key points analysis, manual skills analysis, job learning analysis, faults analysis, benchmarking, Critical Incidents Technique.

Stage Five : Person Analysis

Who in the organisation needs training What kind of training is needed KSA deficits - must have suitable performance criteria
performance appraisal ratings 360-feedback ratings KSAs of new recruits Development Centre ratings self-assessments

Special Training Needs

Retraining
learning how to learn the ageing workforce

Managing Diversity
cross-cultural training (increasing globalisation, multi-cultural societies) Equal Opportunities legislation

Training the Unemployed

long-term unemployed (more than 27 weeks continuously) causes of long-term unemployment (physical, psychological & environmental factors)