Chapter 5.

Vegetative Organizational and Sexual Reproductive Patterns of Plants

5.1. Stem structure

Stem usually consist of three tissues, dermal tissue, ground tissue and vascular tissue. The dermal tissue covers the outer surface of the stem and usually functions to waterproof, protect and control gas exchange. The ground tissue usually consists mainly of parenchyma cells and fills in around the vascular tissue.

Dicot stems
Dicot stems with primary growth have pith in the center, with vascular bundles forming a distinct ring visible when the stem is viewed in cross section. The outside of the stem is covered with an epidermis, which is covered by a waterproof cuticle.

Perennial dicot stem cross section, 40X. A = pith; B = xylem; C = spring xylem; D = summer xylem, E = vascular cambium; F = phloem, G = cork; H = cork cambium, I = cortex

Woody dicots and many nonwoody dicots have secondary growth originating from their lateral or secondary meristems: the vascular cambium and the cork cambium or phellogen.

The vascular cambium forms between the xylem and phloem in the vascular bundles and connects to form a continuous cylinder. The vascular cambium cells divide to produce secondary xylem to the inside and secondary phloem to the outside.

A section of a Yew branch showing 27 annual growth rings, pale sapwood and dark heartwood, and pith (centre dark spot). The dark radial lines are small knots.

Monocot stems
Vascular bundles are present throughout the monocot stem, although concentrated towards the outside. This differs from the dicot stem that has a ring of vascular bundles and often none in the center.

The shoot apex in monocot stems is more elongated. Leaf sheathes grow up around it, protecting it. This is true to some extent of almost all monocots.

Monocots rarely produce secondary growth and are therefore seldom woody, with Palms and Bamboo being notable exceptions. However, many monocot stems increase in diameter via anamolous secondary growth.

Section of the stem of a palm: e, e, remains of leaf-stalks; f, bundles of woody fiber.

Typical Monocot Stems

Cross-Section of Asparagus Stem - Note the number and size diversity of the Vascular Bundles

Outer Part of Asparagus Stem

Vascular Bundles from Corn Stem - The Classic Monocot

Sugarcane Vascular Bundle Stained with Toluidine Blue Compare with the VB from Corn & Identify the same structures that are labeled above.

Gymnosperm stems
All Gymnosperms are woody plants. Their stems are similar in structure to woody dicots except that most gymnosperms produce only tracheids(qung bo) in their xylem, not the vessels(ng) found in dicots.

This tangential section of pine wood shows the same vertical orientation for the tracheids

Fern stems
Most ferns have rhizomes(thn ngm,eg:chui) with no vertical stem. The exception is tree ferns(dng x), with vertical stems up to about 20 meters. The stem anatomy of ferns is more complicated than that of dicots because fern stems often have one or more leaf gaps in cross section.

A leaf gap is where the vascular tissue branches off to a frond. In cross section, the vascular tissue does not form a complete cylinder where a leaf gap occurs. Fern stems may have solenosteles or dictyosteles or variations of them. Many fern stems have phloem tissue on both sides of the xylem in cross-section.

Tree Fern Stem

The central vascular cylinder of the tree fern is composed of a complex arrangement of bandedshaped xylem strands. At the periphery of the central vascular cylinder c-shaped vascular strands of petioles can be seen. Surrounding the vascular cylinder is a mantle of roots. The thickness of the root mantle decreases as one moves up the trunk of the tree. The specimen above is a permian aged tree fern (Psaronius brasiliensis) from Brazil.