Smoke Stack Plumes

Presentation 13
 Smokestack Plumes
• Dispersion from an elevated source is a
different matter
• Pollutants have a longer time to diffuse
laterally before the high concentration region
of the plume touches ground
• So, the maximum concentration at ground
level is not found at the source but at some
distance from the stack
• The magnitude of the maximum concentration
and where it is expected to occur are two of
the most important questions involved in the
effectiveness of an exhaust stack
 Smokestack Plumes
• The simplest way to adapt
Q −1 2[ ( y σ y2 ) + ( z 2 σ z2 ) ]
χ ( x, y , z ) =
2

e 15-1
π uσ yσ z
• to describe this case is by substituting (z-H) for z,
where H represents the height of the stack.
• We must also adjust the multiplying factor to
ensure that the right-hand side is properly
normalized.
– We multiply by 2*pi instead of pi
• However, instead of doing that, let us first consider
a more pressing question:
– What happens when pollutants strike the ground?
– Do the molecules stick, or do they in effect bounce off?
 Smokestack Plumes
• The answer is not simple.
• The proportion that stick depends upon the type of
surface (vegetation, building materials, etc.).
• Due to our lack of knowledge, this proportion is
generally not predictable in advance.
• It is simpler from a mathematical standpoint to
avoid this question and to assume that the
pollutants are reflected when they hit the ground.
• In this case, the generalization of the equation (15-
1) would be:

χ=
Q
2π uσ yσ z
e
−( y 2
2σ y2 )
[e −[ ( z − H ) 2σ z2 ]
2

+e −[ ( z + H ) 2σ z2 ]
2

]
15-2
 Smokestack Plumes

• It is possible to visualize how this describes the

situation by referring to the accompanying figure
• We suppose that the ambient concentration at any
position above the ground level (z > 0) is given by
the contributions from two sources: the real source at
z = H and an imaginary source of equal emission rate
at z = —H.
• The symmetry of the geometry suggests the name of
image source for the source underneath.
 Smokestack Plumes
• The ambient concentration predicted
by Eq. (15-2) is the same as it would
be if pollutants were reflected from
the ground when they hit.
• If a fraction of the pollutant was
actually absorbed on impact, the
image source should be weaker
• Equation (15-2) can therefore be
regarded as giving the maximum
expected ambient concentration at
any point, and its use would thus
provide a conservative estimate
 Plume Reflection

• Real source (above ground) and image source (below

ground). The total ambient concentration for the spatial
region z > 0 is the same as it would be if the pollutant
molecules were reflected upward as they struck the ground.
 Quantifying Dispersion

A number of methods have been used

to measure or estimate diffusion in
turbulent atmospheres
 Empirical Methods
• The difficulties facing theoretical efforts to describe diffusion in
turbulent atmospheres, and the lack of data for their application to
individual geographical localities, have led to an abandonment in
most practical applications of theoretical formulas in favor of
empirical ones.
• A generalization of the binormal distribution Eq. (15-2) is in favor
with most diffusion experts.
• Generalization is performed
2  2 D y by assuming2
that the variances are not
 2 Dz 
given by σ y =   x, and σ z =  x
 u   u 

Q −1 2[ ( y σ y2 ) + ( z 2 σ z2 ) ]
χ ( x, y , z ) =
2

• as required by a solution of e
π uσ yσ z

• but are to be determined by observing the behavior of a number of

plumes under various conditions of source operation, wind speed,
and atmospheric stability
 Gaussian Plume Dispersion
• What does it mean to be Gaussian?
 Gaussian Distribution
• It can be shown under very general
assumptions that the distribution of
independent random errors of observation
takes on a normal distribution as the
number of observations becomes large.
• You can graph this curve on your calculator
by entering the following function: y=e-
x^2/2
/(2π).5
• The π in the formula only serves to
normalize the total area under the curve
• When we normalize something, we make it
equal to some norm or standard, usually
 Gaussian Distributions
• The height of the curve represents the probability of the
measurement at that given distance away from the mean.
• The total area under the curve being one represents the fact
that we are 100% certain (probability = 1.00) the
measurement is somewhere.
• Technically, this is the standard normal curve which has a
mean (µ) = 0.0 and σ =1.0. Other applications of the normal
curve do not have this restriction.
• For example, intelligence has often been cast, albeit
controversially, as normally distributed with µ=100.0 and
σ = 16.0.
• This is represented on the next2 slide. Our function has been
− ( x − µ ) / 2σ 2
modified to:
e
y=
σ 2π
Gaussian Distributions
Gaussian Distributions
 Estimating Concentrations
• Principle framework known as the Gaussian Plume
Model
– Employs a 3D axis system of downwind, crosswind, and
vertical with the origin at the ground
– Assumes
• the concentrations from a continuously emitting plume are
proportional to the emission rate
• The concentrations are diluted by the wind at the point of
emission at a rate inversely proportional to the wind speed
• The time averaged (~ 1h) pollutant concentrations crosswind
and vertically near the source are well described by
Gaussian distributions
• The standard deviations of plume concentration in these two
directions are empirically related to the level of turbulence in
the atmosphere and increase with distance from the source
• In its simplest form, the GPM assumes no chemical
reactions or other removal processes and that the
pollution reaching the ground is reflected back into
 Gaussian Plume Model
• All of the following equations are based on a
coordinate system with x downwind from the
source, y crosswind and z vertical
• The concentration, χ , resulting at a receptor
(x,y,z) from a point source located at (0,0,H) is
given by the following equation:
χ= concentration (g m-3)
– H = height of plume centerline (m)
• Also known as effective stack height
• (h + ∆h) (stack height + plume rise)

– z = receptor height (m)

– y = cross wind distance (m)
– QM =source strength / emission rate (g s-1)
– u=mean wind speed (m s-1)
}
σy = horizontal dispersion coefficient (m)f (stability,x)
σz = vertical dispersion coefficient (m)
 Gaussian Plume Model
χ ( x, y , z , H ) =
QM   − y 2   − ( z − H ) 2   − ( z + H ) 2  
exp 2 exp  + exp 
 
2πσ yσ z u   2σ y   2σ z 2
 2σ z
2
  
15-3
∀χ= concentration (g m-3)
•H = height of plume centerline (m)
Also known as effective stack height
(h + ∆h) (stack height + plume rise)

•z = receptor height (m)

•y = cross wind distance (m)
•QM =source strength / emission rate (g s-1)
•u=mean wind speed (m s-1)
∀σy = horizontal dispersion coefficient (m)
∀σz = vertical dispersion coefficient (m)
 Gaussian Plume Model--
Assumptions
• The effluent is being emitted continuously over a
time period long enough to reach and maintain an
equilibrium /steady state condition
• Modification of the airflow by natural and man-
made features is negligible
• Variability of the wind speed and direction is
negligible
• There are NO sources or sinks operating on the
pollutant
• The atmospheric stability is constant over space
and time for the whole extent of the plume
• σx and σz are a function of stability and downwind
distance only
• Total reflection of the pollutant takes place at the
Earth’s surface
• The effective stack height, H, remains constant
 Special Cases
• (a) χ at ground level (z=0)
Qp   − y 2   − H 2 
χ ( x, y,0, H ) = exp 2 exp 
2 
15-4
πσ yσ z u   2σ y   2σ z 

• (b) χ at ground level, directly downwind

(along the plume line, parallel to the wind
direction) (z=y=0)
Qp   − H 2 
χ ( x,0,0, H ) = exp 
2  15-5
πσ yσ z u   2σ z 
 Special Cases
• (c) χ at ground level, directly downwind,
source at ground
Qp
χ ( x,0,0,0) = 15-6

πσ yσ z u
 Maximum Ground Level
Concentration
• If the ambient concentration
downwind from an elevated point
source is given by Eq. (15-3) with
empirical values for the x-dependence
of σy and σz, then several statements
can be made concerning the
magnitude and distribution of the
ground-level concentration.
• The location which received the
maximum ground-level concentration
will be of course on the plume line (y
 Maximum Ground Level
Concentration
• It has been found that the maximum concentration χmax will
−1 2
occur where
σz = 2 H
• This location will of course depend upon the empirically
determined dependence of the standard deviation σz on the
value of x.
• For lack of simpler or more accurate alternatives, a power
law dependence is often assumed as introduced by O. G.
2− N 2
Sutton x x 2 − Mdistribution
C y for a 2normal
(1947) C z2 in y and z:
σy =
2
; σz = Variance in y and z space
2 2

• where N and M are appropriate numbers; these numbers,

together with the constants Cy and Cz are called "diffusion
parameters."
 Maximum Ground Level
Concentration
• Thus for the case when n = m, so that
σy/σz is independent of x:
σ y2 2
x 2− N C y
= 2− N = 2 ;
σz x
2
Cz
σ y Cy
There is no dependence on x = ≠ f ( x)
σ z Cz
2σ y 2σ z 2σ yσ z
Further manipulation
yields:
C yCz = ( 2 − N ) / 2 × ( 2 − N ) / 2 = ( 2 − N )
x x x
And: C yC z x ( 2 − N ) = 2σ yσ z
 Maximum Ground Concentration
dχ
• The maximum concentration of χ occurs when=0
dx
• Assume we are on the plume centerline (y=0) and
on the ground (z=0).
• We need σy= f(x) and σz= f(x)
x 2 − N C y2 x 2 − M C z2
Take the square root of: σ y2 = ; σ z2 =
2 2
1− N 1− N
x 2C
y x 2C
To get: σy = and σ z = z
2 2
 Maximum Ground Concentration
dχ
• The maximum concentration of χ occurs when=0
dx
• Assume we are on the plume centerline (y=0) and
on the ground (z=0).
χ ( x, y , z , H ) = 1− N 1− N
x 2C
y2 x 2Cz 2
QM σ y =   − y and
σ z =− ( z − H )   − ( z + H ) 2  
exp2 2 exp 22  + exp 
 
2πσ yσ z u   2σ y   2σ z  2σ z
2
  
15-3 (again)
• becomes

QM   − H 2 
χ ( x,0,0, H ) = exp 
2  15-5 (again)
πσ yσ z u   2σ z 
 Maximum Ground Concentration
• Substituting: 1− N
x 2C 1− N
x 2C
y
σy = and σ z = z
2 2

QM   − H 2 
• into χ ( x,0,0, H ) = exp 
2 
πσ yσ z u   2σ z 

QM   − H 2 
χ ( x,0,0, H ) = exp 2 − N 2  15-7
 x1− 2 C  1− N 2    x C z 
N
 y  x Cz 
π  u
 2   2 
  
 Maximum Ground Concentration
• Rewriting as:
 QM 2  1   − H 
2
χ =  
 x 2 − N exp 2 − N 2 
πC C
 y z u   x C z 
or
 QM 2  N − 2   − H 2 
χ = 
πC C u
(x

) exp 2 − N 2 
 y z    x C z 

dχ
=0
• Now comes the FUN part…we want
dx

so we have to take the derivative

WRT x
 Maximum Ground Concentration
dχ 2Q p   − H 2

=  ( N − 2) x N − 3
× exp 2 − N 2  +
dx π uC y C z   x Cz 
  N −3 
2 2
− H − H
x N −2
× exp 2 − N 2  × 2 ( N − 2 ) x 

 x C z  C z 

dχ
• We know dx
= 0 when ( ) =0
 Maximum Ground Concentration
• Rearranging
2Q p   − H 2

0=  ( N − 2) x N − 3
× exp 2 − N 2  +
π uC y C z   x Cz 
  N −3 
2 2
− H − H
x N −2
× exp 2 − N 2  × 2 ( N − 2 ) x 

 x C z  C z 
  − H2 
 ( N − 2) x N − 3
× exp 2 − N 2  =

  x Cz 
 − H2  − H2 N −3 
x N −2
× exp 2 − N 2  × 2 ( N − 2 ) x 

 x Cz  Cz 
 Maximum Ground Concentration
• That leaves us with:
 H 2
 H 2 This is where χ is
1 = x N − 2  2  or x 2 − N = 2 maximized at ground
 Cz  Cz level…the more vigorous
the vertical diffusion is,
the sooner it touches the
• Also since: ground

2− N Cz
σ z2 =x , we can subsititute in for the RHS to get :
2
2
H −1 This is where the
σz =
2
or σ z = 2 2 H maximum χ will
2
occur

• But what is χmax?

 Maximum Ground Concentration
−1 2 Cy
We can substituteσ z = 2 H and σ y = × 2−1 2 H
Cz

QM   − H 2 
χ ( x,0,0, H ) = exp 
2 
πσ yσ z u   2σ z 
Into
 Maximum Ground Concentration
To get QM   − H 2 
χ= exp −1 2 
(
π u 2 H  2 H  )
 C y −1 2  −1 2   2 2 H ( ) 2

 Cz 
QM C z   − H 2 
= −1 2 exp 
−1 2  
π u 2 H C y   2 ⋅ 2 H 
2QM C z
= exp( − 1)
π uH C y
2

Finally: 2QM  C z 
χ maximum = (15-8)

π uH e  C y 
2 
 Maximum Ground Concentration
2QM  C z 
χ maximum =
π uH e  C y 
2 

• This formula illustrates some important

features concerning the effectiveness of
exhaust stacks.
• The symbol e represents the base of the
natural logarithms e = 2.718.
• Near the ground, the empirical parameter
Cz tends to be smaller than Cy because of
suppression of large-scale vertical
turbulence.
• Thus a value of 0.7 for Cz/Cy under a
 Maximum Ground Concentration
• For altitudes in excess of 25 m, the
turbulence becomes more isotropic; field
studies indicate that Cz approximately
equals Cy above this level.
• An example of how diffusion parameters
vary with atmospheric stability and
elevation is given in the following table

x 2 − N C y2 x 2 − M C z2
Sutton’s diffusion parameters for n=m in σ y2 = ; σ z2 =
2 2
 Maximum Ground Concentration
• Of course, the values of the constants
applied in the evaluation of Equation (15-3)
must depend upon individual
circumstances.
• Generally one chooses values which
correspond to an elevation midway
between ground level and the height of the
exhaust stack.
• This is true for the wind speed, which also
appears in the formulas.
– Wind speeds are frequently found to increase by
30% to 50% from a height of 10 m to 300 m
 Maximum Ground Concentrations
• The maximum ground-level concentration
from a plume released from a height H is
seen to be inversely proportional to H2
– The second power of H enters because the
plume is diffusing in two dimensions as it
travels down­wind; thus the same mass of
pollutant is spread over a wider area, an area
which is effectively proportional to H2.
• However, the fact that χmax is also
proportional to Cz implies that the more
vigorous the vertical2 −diffusion,
N H2 the sooner
x = 2
the lower edge of the plume Cz touches
ground
 Maximum Ground Concentrations

• If Cy for some reason were to be

small, relatively little diffusion would
have occurred in the horizontal
direction and a high ground-level
concentration would result.
• It is fortunate that in most cases Cz/Cy
is on the order of unity.
 Maximum Ground Concentrations
2QM  C z 
χ maximum =
π uH e  C y 
2  (15-8) again

• The maximum concentration according to Eq. (15-

8) is also inversely proportional to the wind speed
• Strong winds draw out the plume and dilute it
more thoroughly because more air passes by the
exhaust stack during a given length of time
• Strong winds also affect the degree of turbulence,
owing to an enhancement of mechanical
turbulence, a factor which should be incorporated
into selecting the proper values for the diffusion
parameters
 Maximum Ground Concentrations
2QM  C z 
χ maximum =
π uH e  C y 
2  (15-8) again

• A feature of Eq. (15-8) worth special emphasis is

the fact that the maximum ground-level
concentration depends upon the mass emission
rate; for a given release height H it is independent
of the concentration of the pollutant in the exhaust
gas
• This means that simply emitting a more dilute
mixture without decreasing the mass emission
rate will not reduce the ground-level concentration
at the receptor, other factors being equal
– The reason is that our model implicitly assumes that only
pollutant—and no air—is emitted from the stack, and that
dilution of the effluent in ambient air after its emission is
 Maximum Ground Concentrations
• An aspect of concern in the analysis of
exhaust plumes is the extent of the area
affected by a pollutant concentration
exceeding a certain value
• The affected area will, of course, depend
upon how the diffusion parameters vary
with distance x, and so a detailed analysis
χ ( x, of H ) = (15-3) is required
y, z ,Eq.
QM   − y 2   − ( z − H ) 2   − ( z + H ) 2  
exp 2 exp  + exp 
 
2πσ yσ z u   2σ y   2σ z 2
 2σ z
2
  
15-3
 Maximum Ground Concentrations
• One empirical example, obtained by monitoring
tracer pollutants which were intentionally placed in
the exhaust gas from a power plant, is shown in
the figure below
– The contours trace locations of uniform ambient
concentrations
• It is important to realize that the distance
downwind from large sources at which the
maximum ground-level concentration is observed
may be impressively great
– In this example, the maximum
Downwindwas observed
concentration a distance
of a pollutant emitted
fromfrom
of slightly more than 6 km a 300-MW
the power
exhaustplant with
stacka 100-m
stack. Contours give relative values of the
ground level concentration measured for a
three-hour average. [M. Hino, Atmospheric
Environment, 2, 149 (1968)]
 Maximum Ground Concentrations
• Patterns of ground-level concentrations
shift with changing stability
– As an example, the figure below illustrates the
fact that a much more extensive length along
the plume line will experience high
concentrations during periods of high stability
– However away from the plume line, the
concentrations are much lower
Effect of atmospheric stability on the
ground-level concentration under the
plume line. The source is assumed to
have a volume emission rate of Qv =
4.7 liters/sec (10 ft3/min) from a 30-m
stack; and the wind speed is u= 0.5
m/sec (100 ft/min). The distance is in
kilometers.