Chapter 15 Sensory, Motor & Integrative Systems

Levels and components of sensation Pathways for sensations from body to brain Pathways for motor signals from brain to body Integration Process
wakefulness and sleep learning and memory

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Is Sensation Different from Perception?

Sensation is any stimuli the body is aware of
What are we not aware of?
X-rays, ultra high frequency sound waves, UV light

We have no sensory receptors for those stimuli

Perception is the conscious awareness & interpretation of a sensation.

precisely localization & identification memories of our perceptions are stored in cortex
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Sensory Modalities
Different types of sensations
touch, pain, temperature, vibration, hearing, vision

Each type of sensory neuron can respond to only one type of stimuli Two classes of sensory modalities
general senses
somatic are sensations from body walls visceral are sensations from internal organs

special senses
smell, taste, hearing, vision, and balance
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Process of Sensation
Sensory receptors demonstrate selectivity
respond to only one type of stimuli

Events occurring within a sensation

stimulation of the receptor transduction (conversion) of stimulus into a graded potential
vary in amplitude and are not propagated

generation of impulses when graded potential reaches threshold integration of sensory input by the CNS
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Sensory Receptors
Selectively respond to only one kind of stimuli Have simple or complex structures
General Sensory Receptors (Somatic Receptors)
no structural specializations in free nerve endings that provide us with pain, tickle, itch, temperatures some structural specializations in receptors for touch, pressure & vibration

Special Sensory Receptors (Special Sense Receptors)

very complex structures---vision, hearing, taste, & smell

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Classification of Sensory Receptors

Structural classification Type of response to a stimulus Location of receptors & origin of stimuli Type of stimuli they detect

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Structural Classification of Receptors

Free nerve endings
bare dendrites pain, temperature, tickle, itch & light touch

Encapsulated nerve endings

dendrites enclosed in connective tissue capsule pressure, vibration & deep touch

Separate sensory cells

specialized cells that respond to stimuli vision, taste, hearing, balance
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Structural Classification

Compare free nerve ending, encapsulated nerve ending and sensory receptor cell
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Classification by Location
Exteroceptors
near surface of body receive external stimuli hearing, vision, smell, taste, touch, pressure, pain, vibration & temperature

Interoceptors
monitors internal environment (BV or viscera) not conscious except for pain or pressure

Proprioceptors
muscle, tendon, joint & internal ear senses body position & movement
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Classification by Stimuli Detected

Mechanoreceptors
detect pressure or stretch touch, pressure, vibration, hearing, proprioception, equilibrium & blood pressure

Thermoreceptors detect temperature Nociceptors detect damage to tissues Photoreceptors detect light Chemoreceptors detect molecules
taste, smell & changes in body fluid chemistry
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Adaptation of Sensory Receptors

Change in sensitivity to long-lasting stimuli
decrease in responsiveness of a receptor
bad smells disappear very hot water starts to feel only warm

potential amplitudes decrease during a maintained, constant stimulus

Receptors vary in their ability to adapt

Rapidly adapting receptors (smell, pressure, touch)
adapt quickly; specialized for signaling stimulus changes

Slowly adapting receptors (pain, body position)

continuation of nerve impulses as long as stimulus persists
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Somatic Tactile Sensations

Touch
crude touch is ability to perceive something has touched the skin discriminative touch provides location and texture of source

Pressure is sustained sensation over a large area Vibration is rapidly repetitive sensory signals Itching is chemical stimulation of free nerve endings Tickle is stimulation of free nerve endings only by someone else
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Meissners Corpuscle

Dendrites enclosed in CT in dermal papillae of hairless skin Discriminative touch & vibration-- rapidly adapting Generate impulses mainly at onset of a touch
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Hair Root Plexus

Free nerve endings found around follicles, detects movement of hair

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Merkels Disc

Flattened dendrites touching cells of stratum basale Used in discriminative touch (25% of receptors in hands)
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Ruffini Corpuscle

Found deep in dermis of skin Detect heavy touch, continuous touch, & pressure
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Pacinian Corpuscle

Onion-like connective tissue capsule enclosing a dendrite Found in subcutaneous tissues & certain viscera Sensations of pressure or high-frequency vibration
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Thermal Sensations
Free nerve endings with 1mm diameter receptive fields on the skin surface Cold receptors in the stratum basale respond to temperatures between 50-105 degrees F Warm receptors in the dermis respond to temperatures between 90-118 degrees F Both adapt rapidly at first, but continue to generate impulses at a low frequency Pain is produced below 50 and over 118 degrees F. 15-18

Pain Sensations
Nociceptors = pain receptors Free nerve endings found in every tissue of body except the brain Stimulated by excessive distension, muscle spasm, & inadequate blood flow Tissue injury releases chemicals such as K+, kinins or prostaglandins that stimulate nociceptors Little adaptation occurs
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Types of Pain
Fast pain (acute)
occurs rapidly after stimuli (.1 second) sharp pain like needle puncture or cut not felt in deeper tissues larger A nerve fibers begins more slowly & increases in intensity aching or throbbing pain of toothache in both superficial and deeper tissues smaller C nerve fibers
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Slow pain (chronic)

Localization of Pain
Superficial Somatic Pain arises from skin areas Deep Somatic Pain arises from muscle, joints, tendons & fascia Visceral Pain arises from receptors in visceral organs
localized damage (cutting) intestines causes no pain diffuse visceral stimulation can be severe
distension of a bile duct from a gallstone distension of the ureter from a kidney stone

Phantom limb sensations -- cells in cortex still

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Referred Pain

Visceral pain that is felt just deep to the skin overlying the stimulated organ or in a surface area far from the organ. Skin area & organ are served by the same segment of the spinal cord.
Heart attack is felt in skin along left arm since both are supplied by spinal cord segment T1-T5
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Pain Relief
Aspirin and ibuprofen block formation of prostaglandins that stimulate nociceptors Novocaine blocks conduction of nerve impulses along pain fibers Morphine lessen the perception of pain in the brain.

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Proprioceptive or Kinesthetic Sense

Awareness of body position & movement
walk or type without looking estimate weight of objects

Proprioceptors adapt only slightly Sensory information is sent to cerebellum & cerebral cortex
from muscle, tendon, joint capsules & hair cells in the vestibular apparatus
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Muscle Spindles

Specialized intrafusal muscle fibers enclosed in a CT capsule and innervated by gamma motor neurons Stretching of the muscle stretches the muscle spindles sending sensory information back to the CNS Spindle sensory fiber monitor changes in muscle length Brain regulates muscle tone by controlling gamma fibers
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Golgi Tendon Organs

Found at junction of tendon & muscle Consists of an encapsulated bundle of collagen fibers laced with sensory fibers When the tendon is overly stretched, sensory signals head for the CNS & resulting in the muscles relaxation

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Joint Receptors
Ruffini corpuscles
found in joint capsule respond to pressure

Pacinian corpuscles
found in connective tissue around the joint respond to acceleration & deceleration of joints

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Somatic Sensory Pathways

First-order neuron conduct impulses to brainstem or spinal cord
either spinal or cranial nerves

Second-order neurons conducts impulses from spinal cord or brainstem to thalamus--cross over to opposite side before reaching thalamus Third-order neuron conducts impulses from thalamus to primary somatosensory cortex (postcentral gyrus of parietal lobe)
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Posterior Column-Medial Lemniscus Pathway of CNS

Proprioception, vibration, discriminative touch, weight discrimination & stereognosis Signals travel up spinal cord in posterior column Fibers cross-over in medulla to become the medial lemniscus pathway ending in thalamus Thalamic fibers reach cortex
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Spinothalamic Pathways
Lateral spinothalamic tract carries pain & temperature Anterior tract carries tickle, itch, crude touch & pressure First cell body in DRG with synapses in cord 2nd cell body in gray matter of cord, sends fibers to other side of cord & up through white matter to synapse in thalamus 3rd cell body in thalamus projects to cerebral cortex
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Somatosensory Map of Postcentral Gyrus

Relative sizes of cortical areas
proportional to number of sensory receptors proportional to the sensitivity of each part of the body

Can be modified with learning

learn to read Braille & will have larger area representing fingertips

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Sensory Pathways to the Cerebellum

Major routes for proprioceptive signals to reach the cerebellum
anterior spinocerebellar tract posterior spinocerebellar tract

Subconscious information used by cerebellum for adjusting posture, balance & skilled movements Signal travels up to same side inferior cerebellar peduncle
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Somatic Motor Pathways

Control of body movement
motor portions of cerebral cortex
initiate & control precise movements

basal ganglia help establish muscle tone & integrate semivoluntary automatic movements cerebellum helps make movements smooth & helps maintain posture & balance

Somatic motor pathways

direct pathway from cerebral cortex to spinal cord & out to muscles indirect pathway includes synapses in basal ganglia, thalamus, reticular formation & cerebellum
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Primary Motor Cortex

Precentral gyrus initiates voluntary movement Cells are called upper motor neurons Muscles represented unequally (according to the number of motor units) More cortical area is needed if number of motor units in a muscle is high
vocal cords, tongue, lips, fingers & thumb 15-34

Direct Pathway (Pyramidal Pathway)

1 million upper motor neurons in cerebral cortex
60% in precentral gyrus & 40% in postcentral gyrus

Axons form internal capsule in cerebrum and pyramids in the medulla oblongata 90% of fibers decussate(cross over) in the medulla
right side of brain controls left side muscles

Terminate on interneurons which synapse on lower motor neurons in either:

nuclei of cranial nerves or anterior horns of spinal cord

Integrate excitatory & inhibitory input to become final common pathway

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Details of Motor Pathways

Lateral corticospinal tracts
cortex, cerebral peduncles, 90% decussation of axons in medulla, tract formed in lateral column. skilled movements hands & feet

Anterior corticospinal tracts

the 10% of axons that do not cross controls neck & trunk muscles

Corticobulbar tracts
cortex to nuclei of CNs ---III, IV, V, VI, VII, IX, X, XI & XII movements of eyes, tongue, chewing, expressions & speech
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Location of Direct Pathways

Lateral corticospinal tract Anterior corticospinal tract Corticobulbar tract

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Paralysis
Flaccid paralysis = damage lower motor neurons
no voluntary movement on same side as damage no reflex actions muscle limp & flaccid decreased muscle tone

Spastic paralysis = damage upper motor neurons

paralysis on opposite side from injury increased muscle tone exaggerated reflexes
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Indirect Pathways
All other descending motor pathways Complex polysynaptic circuits
include basal ganglia, thalamus, cerebellum, reticular formation

Descend in spinal cord as 5 major tracts All 5 tracts end upon interneurons or lower motor neurons
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Final Common Pathway

Lower motor neurons receive signals from both direct & indirect upper motor neurons Sum total of all inhibitory & excitatory signals determines the final response of the lower motor neuron & the skeletal muscles
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Basal Ganglia

Helps to program automatic movement sequences

walking and arm swinging or laughing at a joke

Set muscle tone by inhibiting other motor circuits Damage is characterized by tremors or twitches
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Basal Ganglia Connections

Circuit of connections
cortex to basal ganglia to thalamus to cortex planning movements

Output from basal ganglia to reticular formation

reduces muscle tone damage produces rigidity of Parkinsons disease
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Cerebellar Function
Aspects of Function learning coordinated & skilled movements posture & equilibrium

1. Monitors intentions for movements -- input from cerebral cortex 2. Monitors actual movements with feedback from proprioceptors 3. Compares intentions with actual movements 4. Sends out corrective signals to motor cortex
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Wakefulness and Sleep

Circadian rhythm
24 hour cycle of sleep and awakening established by hypothalamus

Awake means to be able to react consciously to stimuli EEG recordings show large amount of activity in cerebral cortex when awake
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Reticular Activating System

RAS has connections to cortex & spinal cord. Many types of inputs activate the RAS---pain, light, noise, muscle activity, touch Produces state of wakefulness called consciousness Coma is sleeplike state
deep coma has no reflexes death if cardiovascular reflexes are lost
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Sleep
State of altered or partial consciousness from which a person can be aroused Triggers for sleep are unclear
adenosine levels increase with brain activity adenosine levels inhibit activity in RAS caffeine prevents adenosine from inhibiting RAS

Two types of normal sleep

NREM = non-rapid eye movement sleep REM = rapid eye movement sleep
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Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep

Stage 1
person is drifting off with eyes closed (first few minutes)

Stage 2
fragments of dreams eyes may roll from side to side

Stage 3
very relaxed, moderately deep 20 minutes, body temperature & BP have dropped

Stage 4 = deep sleep

bed-wetting & sleep walking occur in this phase
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REM Sleep
Most dreams occur during REM sleep In first 90 minutes of sleep:
go from stage 1 to 4 of NREM, go up to stage 2 of NREM to REM sleep

Cycles repeat until total REM sleep totals 90 to 120 minutes Neuronal activity & oxygen use highest in REM sleep Total sleeping & dreaming time decreases with age 15-48

 Learning is acquiring new knowledge Memory is retaining that knowledge

short-term memory

Learning & Memory

recall phone number while dialing depends upon electrical events (reverberating circuits)

long-term memory
frequent retrieval of specific information helps with memory consolidation (learning) structural or biochemical changes occurs
increase in dendrites, enlarge endbulbs, increase in presynaptic terminals or formation of additional membrane receptors

Recently acquired memory lost first with coma or shock treatments

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Spinal Cord Injury

Damaged by tumor, herniated disc, clot or trauma Complete transection is cord severed resulting loss of both sensation & movement below the injury Paralysis
monoplegia is paralysis of one limb only diplegia is paralysis of both upper or both lower hemiplegia is paralysis of one side quadriplegia is paralysis of all four limbs

Spinal shock is loss of reflex function (areflexia)

slow heart rate, low blood pressure, bladder problem reflexes gradually return
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