Pressure in the Atmosphere

Unlike temperature, pressure decreases exponentially with altitude. 80 percent of the atmospheres mass is contained within the 18 km closest to the surface. Atmospheric pressure is generally measured in millibars (mb); this unit of measurement is equivalent to 1 gram per centimeter squared (1 g/cm2). Other units are occasionally used, such as bars, atmospheres, or millimeters of mercury.

Bars

Millibars

Atmospheres

Millimeters of mercury

1.013 bar

1013 mb

1 atm

760 mm Hg

At sea level, pressure ranges from about 960 to 1,050 mb, with an average of 1,013 mb. At the top of Mt. Everest, pressure is as low as 300 mb. Because gas pressure is related to density, it means that there are approximately one-third as many gas molecules inhaled per breath on top of Mt. Everest as at sea level That is why climbers experience ever more severe shortness of breath the higher they go, as less oxygen is inhaled with every breath.

Atmospheric Pressure
Units of atmospheric Pressure General circulation Vertical profile of atmospheric pressure Horizontal variation of atmospheric pressure Isobars Diurnal variation in pressure Cyclones and anticyclones Characteristics of cyclones and anticyclones

Definition
It is defined as the weight exerted by air column on unit surface of earth. Force Therefore, Pressure (P) = Area
P = H ga = H g a

Units of Pressure
1 Atmosphere 76 cm x 13.6 g/cm2 1 bar 1033.3 g/cm2 29.92 inches or 76 cm or 760 nm 1013.250 mb 101.325 KPa P = hg 76 cm x 13.6 x 980.6 = 1013250 dynes/ cm2 = 1.014 x 106 dynes/ cm2

Factors affecting Pressure at a place Temperature Altitude Water vapour in air Revolution of earth Gravitation of earth

General Circulation
Equator absorb more heat and loses less heat Polar region give off more heat than they receive This regional variation in temperature cause difference in pressure The atmospheric motion or wind when summarised over earths surface is known as general circulation of atmosphere

Vertical profile
The amount of pressure exerted by air at a particular place is determined by height of the air column, density of air and gravitational force exerted by earth. The rate of decrease in pressure with increase in height can be given by dp = -g dh

Altitude (km)

Pressure (mb)

0
2 4 6 8 10 15 20 30 40 50

1013.00
795.00 616.00 472.00 356.00 264.00 120.00 55.21 11.52 2.78 0.93

60
70 80 90 100

0.35
0.12 0.03 0.008 0.003

Horizontal variation
The horizontal distribution of pressure depends on temperature, extent of water vapour, latitude and land water relationship. The uneven heating of earths surface at different latitudes result in pressure variation Pressure and temperature act inverse to each other. Presence of water vapor in air make the air lighter. Thus saturated air is lighter than dry air

Source: Aggarwal et al. 1994

Horizontal variation
There are seven alternating low and high pressure belts on earths surface:
Equatorial trough Subtropical high pressure belt hemisphere) Subtropical high pressure belt hemisphere) Sub polar low (Northern hemisphere) Sub polar low (Southern hemisphere) Polar high (Northern hemisphere) Polar high (Southern hemisphere) (Northern

(Southern

Source: Aggarwal et al. 1994

Horizontal pressure variation

Polar high 70 60 35 25 5 Sub polar low Sub tropical high N

Equatorial low
5 25 Sub tropical high 60 70 Polar high Sub polar low

35

Isobars
Any line joining places of equal atmospheric pressure on weather maps is called isobar. Where isobars are closely spaced a rapid or steep change in pressure When isobars are widely spaced slow change in pressure Two isobars never cross each other

Isobars
Isobars assume different shapes as follows
Depression Secondary depression Trough Anticylones Ridge or wedge COL Straight isobars

Diurnal variation in pressure

Shows two highs two lows Highs at 10 am and 10 pm Lows 4 pm and 4 am Pressure Gradient The rate of change of pressure per unit distance between two points at same elevation is known as pressure gradient or isobaric slope. Expressed in terms if decrease in pressure per unit horizontal distance as mb/100 m

Cyclones
A low pressure centre enclosed by circular or oval shaped isobars is known as cyclone. Pressure decreases from its outer rim to its centre Air rushes spirally towards centre Velocity of air > 34 knots Air circulates in anticlockwise in N.H. and vice versa

Characteristics of cyclone
The foremost characteristic is that tropical cyclones are most violent, most awesome and most disastrous of all the atmospheric disturbances. The average speed is 120 kmph. Although it may vary from 32 kmph to 200 kmph or more. At times it reaches 400 kmph also. They have closed isobars. The pressure gradient is very sharp. More closely spaced isobars represents greater velocity of the storm and vice-versa. The pressure at the center is extremely low. The winds from the surrounding area are drawn towards this low-pressure core called the "eye" of the cyclone. Tropical cyclones develop over oceans and seas only. They are most violent and vigorous over water. On landfall, their velocity decreases due to friction, and as the source of energy is cut off, they dissipate soon. Thus they affect the coastal areas only. The movement of tropical cyclone is affected by the prevailing wind system. Normally they move from east to west under the influence of trade winds. They are seasonal in nature and occur during a specific period of the year only.

Anticylones
A high pressure centre enclosed by isobars decreasing pressure in oval or elliptical shape is known as anticyclones Pressure decreases from its outer rim to its centre Air moves spirally outwards in clock wise direction N.H. and vice versa Scanty weather Subsidence and divergent wind system do not favour condensation and cloud formation

Characteristics of anticyclones
Pressure distribution Temperature distribution Distribution of moisture and clouds Distribution of rainfall Wind velocity and direction Eye of the cyclone

Instruments used for measuring atmospheric pressure

Fortins barometer Kew pattern barometer Aneroid barometer Barograph

Wind : Air in Motion

Horizontal flow of air is called wind Wind results from the pressure gradient The flow of wind is from high pressure to low pressure Wind plays important role in making of weather

Causes of wind generation

Differences in temperature over the earths surface Temperature pressure and wind are related to each other High temperature = Low pressure & vice versa At low temperature density of air is high & vice versa

Forces responsible for wind generation

Pressure gradient force Geostrophic or coriolis force Cyclostrophic or centrifugal force Frictional force

Pressure gradient force

The pressure decrease per unit horizontal distance is called pressure gradient. It acts in a perpendicular direction to isobars PG =1/ x dp/dn Where, = air density, dp/dn = rate of change in pressure with distance dp = change in pressure dn = horizontal distance between the isobars

Coriolis force
This force comes in to play due to rotation of earth The air particles cannot move in straight line but are deflected and move in curvilinear path In N.H. wind move towards right due to C.F. and in S.H. they move towards left At equator C.F. = 0, but increases regularly towards poles. CF = 2VSin Where, V= velocity of wind, = constant equal to angular velocity of earth, = latitude where the motion occurs

Centrifugal force
When there is marked curvature in the isobars a third force i.e. centrifugal force is introduced It acts outwards from the centre of any curved motion

Frictional force
The frictional force is maximum at surface Gradually decreases with height until it becomes insignificant. This decrease with height leads to clockwise change in wind direction, which is sometimes called Ekman spiral

Geostrophic wind
When the wind flows in a straight line with no acceleration or frictional force acting on it, the only forces acting are coriolis force and pressure gradient force. The wind flowing under these conditions is called geostrophic wind. It blows parallel to the isobars with high pressure to right in N.H. Its velocity is inversely proportional to the distance between the isobars. Thus in geostrophic wind, CF = Pressure gradient force 2VSin = 1/ x dp/dn

General Circulation
Equator absorb more heat and loses less heat Polar region give off more heat than they receive This regional variation in temperature cause difference in pressure The atmospheric motion or wind when summarised over earths surface is known as general circulation of atmosphere

Wind pattern can be divided as

Doldrums Trade wind belts Westerlies Polar easterlies

Classification of Wind
Wind

Vertical current

Horizontal

1. 2. 3. 4.

Divergence Convergence Eddies Convection

Periodic Monsoon winds

General circulation

Local winds

1. 2.

S.E. Monsoon N.E. Monsoon

1. 2. 3.

Trade winds Westerlies Polar easterlies

1. 2. 3. 4.

Land /Sea breeze Mountain/valley breeze Fohn/Chinkoo winds Tornadoes

Horizontal pressure variation

Polar high 70 60 35 25 5 Sub polar low Sub tropical high N

Equatorial low
5 25 Sub tropical high 60 70 Polar high Sub polar low

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Wind Rose
Wind rose is pictorial representation of wind direction and wind speed. It gives overall idea of distribution of W.D. and W.S. at a given location for given period of time. It is an useful tool in wind break and shelter belt studies.

Construction of Wind Rose