RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Topic 5: Measurement and Scales

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Learning Outcomes
Define conceptualisation and operationalisation; Explain the four types of scales used in research; Prescribe the measures of quality used and; Assess the sources of measurement errors.
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Introduction
The definition of concepts and the methods of measuring the concepts will help the researcher to determine the methods of collecting and analysing data. The process of defining concepts is important in a research so as to ensure that readers have the same understanding as the researcher; this will prevent any confusion or misunderstanding by readers in interpreting the meaning of the concept. Measurement of the variables is an integral part of the research process. It is an important aspect of a research design.

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Conceptualisation
In a research, we use concepts that vary in levels of abstraction; from simple concepts such as shoes, table, height, to the most abstract such as satisfaction, marketability, love and stress. Conceptualisation is the mental process of making fuzzy and imprecise notions (mental images-conceptions) into more specific and precise meanings to enable communication and eventual agreement on the specific meanings of the terms or notions. We specify what we mean when we use a particular term. The process of conceptualisation will produce specification of the indicators of what we have in mind on the concept we are studying.

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Conceptualisation
For example, the concept of compassion may comprise different kinds of compassion. e.g. there is compassion towards humans or animals. In addition, compassion may be an act or a feeling. It could also be seen in terms of forgiveness or pity. The grouping of the concept is known as dimension. Thus, conceptualisation involves both specifying dimensions and identifying the various indicators for each. The process of refining and specifying abstract concepts is called definition. By defining a concept, we get its meaning, which enables us to draw conclusions. The concepts are specified using the following:

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Conceptualisation

Operationalisation
Once the concepts have been identified, the next step is the process of developing the specific research procedures/operations that will result in empirical observations representing those concepts in the real world. The process of linking a conceptual definition to a specific set of measurement techniques or procedures is called operationalisation. These are procedures to measure a concept either through a collection of data from a survey research or by conducting observation research. The following example explains this (refer page 60). To be meaningful, the measurement must follow rules that specify procedures of assigning numbers to objects of reality.

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Variables
At the theoretical level, concepts and constructs are used; whereas at the empirical level, the constructs are transformed into variables. Thus, variables are the construct or property to be studied. A variable consists of logical groupings or sets of attributes/values. An attribute is the intensity or strength of attachment to attitudes, beliefs and behaviours associated with a concept. It is a characteristic or quality of a concept/symbol to which numerals or values are assigned. Two important characteristics of a variable are: (a) Attributes composing the variable must be exhaustive. (b) Attributes composing a variable must be mutually exclusive.
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Types of Variable
Dependent Independe nt

VARIABL E Moderating

Intervening

Extraneous

Refer Page 61

Measurement
The concepts used in a research are divided into objects or properties.. Objects are things of ordinary experience such as shirts, hands, computers, shoes, books and papers. Things that are not so obvious or not concrete such as genes, nitrogen, attitudes, stocks and peer-group pressure are also included as objects. Properties or attributes, on the other hand, are the characteristics of the objects. Indicants such as age, working experience and number of reports done can be easily measured. However, properties such as an individuals ability to solve problems, motivation for success, political affiliation and sympathetic feelings are more difficult to measure. Since they cannot be measured directly, they have to be measured by making inferences to the presence or absence by observing some indicant or pointer measurement.

Measurement
The accepted rules in using numbers to map the observation of the indicants include: (a)Numbers ordered One number is greater than, less than or equal to another number; (b) Difference between numbers ordered The difference between any pair of numbers is greater than, less than or equal to the difference between any other pair of numbers; and (c) The number series has a unique origin indicated by the number zero.

Level of Measurement
Interval Measure (Scale) Ratio Measure (Scale)

Level of measureme nt Ordinal measure (Scale) Refer Page 63 67

Nominal measure (Scale)

Rating Scales
Staple Scale Dichotomous Scale Category Scale

Numerical Scale

RATING SCALES

Fixed or Constant Sum Scale

Category Scale Likert Scale Summated Rating

Semantic Differential Scale

Refer Page 67 70

Ranking Scale

Paired Compariso n

Ranking Scale

Forced Choice

Comparative Scale

Refer Page 71 72

Measurement Quality
Three major criteria are often used to determine the quality of a measurement tool: reliability, validity and practicality. Reliability and validity are considered as the scientific criteria of the measurement. Reliability can be assessed by posing the following questions (Easterby-Smith, et al. 2002): (a) Will the measures give the same results on other occasions? (b) Will similar observations be reached by other observers? (c) Is there transparency in how sense was made from the raw data? Validity is concerned with truthfulness, that is, the match between a construct, or the way the idea is conceptualised in a conceptual definition and measures. Major threats to validity include history, maturation effects, testing effects, instrument effects.
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Measurement Quality
Practicality is concerned with the operational requirement of the measurement process. The criterion of practicality involves the aspects of economy, convenience and interpretability. To achieve a high degree of reliability and validity, one may require high expenditure that may be beyond the budget for research; thus there has to be some form of trade off between the ideal measures and the budget. Data collection techniques are always dictated by budget constraints and other economic factors. The measuring device should also be easy to administer; the design of the instruments used should allow easy comprehension and have complete and clear instructions. If the instrument is to be administered by people other than the designer, then it must also be easy to interpret.

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Sources of Measurement Errors

Respondent as an Error Source

Situational Factors

SOURCES

Measurer as an Error Source

Refer Page 75

Instrume nt as an Error Source

THE END
Next Topic 6 Survey Method and Secondary Data