Marine radars are used to measure the bearing and distance of ships to prevent collision with other ships,

to navigate and to fix their position at sea

when within range of shore or other fixed

BASIC ELECTRONICS

references such as islands ,buoys , and lightships.

TITLE: RADAR AND ANTENNA

determine what it can observe.

Brightness can indicate reflectivity as in this 1960 weather

radar image (of Hurricane Abby). The radar's frequency,

pulse form, polarization, signal processing, and antenna

What is radar?
An object-detection system which uses electromagnetic waves specifically radio waves to determine the range, altitude, direction, or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as aircraft, ships, spacecraft Transmits pulses of radio waves or microwaves which bounce off any object in their path. The object returns a tiny part of the wave's energy to a dish or antenna which is usually located at the same site as the transmitter.

Basic radar operation

Light waves, radio waves, microwaves, radar waves is electromagnetic waves. Unlike water waves, electromagnetic waves do not require a medium such as water or air to travel through. They can travel through a complete vacuum. Similar to light waves, radar waves bounce off some objects and travel through others. The simplest mode of radar operation is determining how far away an object is. The radar unit sends radar waves out toward the target . The waves hit the target and are reflected back.

 The returning wave is received by the radar unit and the travel time is registered. According to basic principles of physics, distance is equal to the rate of travel (speed) multiplied by the time of travel. All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in a vacuumthe speed of light which is 186,282 miles (299,727 kilometers) per second. This speed is reduced by a small amount when the waves are traveling through air but this can be calculated.

How does radar work?

Radars create an electromagnetic (EM) pulse that is focused by an antenna, and then transmitted through the atmosphere (Figure A).

Objects in the path of the transmitted EM pulse, called "targets" or "echoes," scatter most of the energy, but some will be reflected back toward the radar (Figure B).

The receiving antenna (normally also the transmitting antenna) gathers back-scattered radiation and feeds it to a "receiver."

An EM pulse encountering a target is scattered in all directions. The larger the target, the stronger the scattered signal (Figure C).

Also, the more targets, the stronger the return signal, that is, the targets combine to produce a stronger signal (Figure D).

The radar measures the returned signal, generally called the "reflectivity."

Reflectivity magnitude is related to the number and size of the targets encountered.

History of radar and Development

1886

Heinrich Hertz showed that radio waves could be reflected from solid objects.

1895

Alexander Popov, a physics instructor at the Imperial Russian Navy school in Kronstadt, developed an apparatus using a coherer tube for detecting distant lightning strikes

1897

While testing communicating between two ships in the Baltic Sea, the interference beat caused by the passage of a third vessel - this phenomenon might be used for detecting objects, but he did nothing more with this observation.

1904

German Christian Huelsmeyer was the first to use radio waves to detect "the presence of distant metallic objects". Detecting a ship in dense fog, but not its distance

Nikola Tesla outlined a concept for primitive radar units : by standing electromagnetic waves use we may produce at will, from a sending station, an August electrical effect in any particular region of the 1917 globe. A. Hoyt Taylor and Leo C. Young, researchers working with the U.S. Navy, discovered - when radio waves were broadcast at 60 MHz it was possible to determine the range and bearing of nearby ships in the Potomac River.

1922

 Researchers in France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States - developed technologies that led to the modern version of radar. Before the Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa Second World followed prewar great Britain, and Hungary had similar War developments during the war

1934

The Soviet military engineer P.K.Oschepkov, in collaboration with Leningrad electrophysical Institute, produced an experimental apparatus, RAPID - capable of detecting an aircraft within 3 km of a receiver But had continuous-wave operation and could not give the full performance that was ultimately at the center of modern radar.

 Full radar evolved as a pulsed system and the December first was demonstrated by American Robert M. Page, working at the Naval Research 1934 Laboratory

Popular Science showed an example of a radar unit using the Watson-Watt patent in an article on air defence, but not knowing that the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy were working April 1940 on radars with the same principle, stated under the illustration, "This is not U.S. Army equipment."

 The war precipitated research to find better resolution, more portability, and more features for radar, including Late 1941 complementary navigation systems. The postwar years have seen the use of radar in fields as diverse as air traffic control, weather monitoring, astrometry, and road speed control.

1958

Radar contact was established with Venus

1959

The radar then established with the sun Thereby opening a new field of astronomy known as radar astronomy.

The USES of radar

Modern uses of radar are highly diverse including air traffic control, radar astronomy, air-defense systems, antimissile systems like nautical radars to locate landmarks and other ships, aircraft anticollision systems for ocean-surveillance systems, meteorological precipitation monitoring, altimetry and flight-control systems, guided-missile targetlocating systems and ground-penetrating radar for geological observations. High tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing and are capable of extracting objects from very high noise levels.

 ALTAIR - used to detect and track space objects in conjunction with ABM testing at the Ronald Reagan Test Site on Kwajalein Atoll.

Israeli military radar is typical of the type of radar used for air traffic control. The antenna rotates at a steady rate, sweeping the local airspace with a narrow vertical fan-shaped beam, to detect aircraft at all altitudes. This Melbourne base Primary and secondary radar is used for air traffic control and to observe terminal area conflicts by VFR local aircraft.

WHAT IS ANTENNA?

An electrical device which converts electric current into radio waves, and vice versa.

antenna
Consists of an arrangement of metallic conductor (element)

Electrically connected (often through a transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter

.

An oscillating current of electrons forced through the antenna by a transmitter will create an oscillating magnetic field around the antenna elements

antenna
The electrons also creates an field oscillating electric field along the element These time-varying fields radiate away from the antenna into space as a moving electromagnetic field wave. Conversely, during reception, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of an incoming radio wave exert force on the electrons in the antenna elements, causing them to move back and forth, creating oscillating currents in the antenna.

antenna
Also contain reflective or directive elements or surfaces not connected to the transmitter or receiver, such as parasitic elements, parabolic reflectors or horns, which serve to direct the radio waves into a beam or other desired radiation pattern.

THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ANTENNA

First experiments

Involved the coupling of electricity and magnetism and showed a definitive relationship was that done by Faraday somewhere around 1830s Creating a time-varying magnetic field, which as a result (from Maxwells Equations)

The coil acted as a loop antenna and received the electromagnetic radiation, which was received (detected) by the galvanometer-the work of antenna.

First antenna

Built in 1888 by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in his pioneering experiments To prove the existence of electromagnetic waves predicted by the theory of James Clerk Maxwell Developed a wireless communication system in which he forced an electrical spark to occur in the gap of a dipole antenna.

He used a loop antenna as receiver, and observed a similar disturbance This was 1886. Hertz placed dipole antennas at the focal point of parabolic reflector for both transmitting and receiving.

 By 1901, Marconi was sending information across the Atlantic. For a transmit antenna, he used several vertical wires attached to the ground. In 1901, Columbia University had an Experimental Wireless Station

There are several discovered antennas:

Yagi-Uda Antenna (1920s)

It is simple to construct and has a high gain, typically greater than 10dB operate in the HF and UHF bands ( about 3MHz to 3GHz) The Yagi antenna was invented in Japan done by Shintaro Uda Presented for the first time in English by Yagi at America

Horn Antenna (1939) At UHF (300 MHz-3GHz) and higher frequencies will achieved to 140 GHz. Can range up to 25dB in some cases

Antenna Arrays (1940s)

Often called a phased array is asset of 2 or more antennas The signals from the antennas are combined or processed in order to achieve improved performance

Parabolic reflectors (late 1940)

Commonly known as satellite dish antenna (30-40 dB is common) and low cross polarization Huge dishes( which can operate from 150 MHz to 1.5 GHz) Smaller dish antenna typically operate between 2-28 GHz The feed antenna is often a Horn antenna with a circular aperture

Patch Antenna (1970s) It printed directly onto a circuit board. low cost, have a low profile and are easily fabricated

PIFA (1980)
The quarter-wavelength Patch Antenna, which leads into the Planar Inverted-F antenna (PIFA). The patch is shorted at the end Has the same current-voltage distribution as a half-wave patch antenna reduced in size 50%.

THE USE OF ANTENNA

Radio broadcasting
A one-way wireless transmission over radio wave intended to reach a wide audience. The signal types can be either analog or digital audio.

 Broadcast television A mode of television broadcasting which does

not involve satellite transmission or cables which is typically using radio waves through transmitting and receiving antennas or television antenna aerials

 Two-way radio A radio that can both transmit and receive (a transceiver), unlike a broadcast receiver which only receives content

 Communication receiver A type of radio receiver used as a component of a radio communication link

 Cell phone
A device which can make and receive telephone calls over a radio link whilst moving around a wide geographic area. It does so by connecting to a cellular network provided by a mobile network operator

 Satellite communication
An artificial satellite stationed in space for the purpose of telecommunication They are also used for mobile applications such as communications to ships, vehicles, planes and hand-held terminals, and for TV and radio broadcasting, for which application of other technologies

 Wireless microphone A microphone without a physical cable connecting it directly to the sound recording or amplifying equipment with which it is associated

 Wireless computer network A wireless local area network (WLAN) links

two or more devices using some wireless distribution method (typically spreadspectrum or OFDM radio), and usually providing a connection through an access point to the wider internet

THE END.