Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Energy-Efficient Communication Protocol Architecture for Wireless Microsensor Networks (LEACH Protocol)
[Heinzelman+ 2000, 2002]
LEACH is a clustering-based protocol that utilizes the randomized rotation of local cluster base stations to evenly distribute the energy load within the network of sensors It is a distributed, does not require any control information from base station (BS) and the nodes do not need to have knowledge of global network for LEACH to function The energy saving of LEACH is achieved by combining compression with data routing Key features of LEACH include:
Localized coordination and control of cluster set-up and operation
Randomized rotation of the cluster base stations or clusterheads and their clusters
Local compression of information to reduce global communication
LEACH
Considered microsensor network has the following characteristics: The base station is fixed and located far from the sensors All the sensor nodes are homogeneous and energy constrained
Communication between sensor nodes and the base station is expensive and no high energy nodes exist to achieve communication By using clusters to transmit data to the BS, only few nodes need to transmit for larger distances to the BS while other nodes in each cluster use small transmit distances
LEACH achieves superior performance compared to classical clustering algorithms by using adaptive clustering and rotating clusterheads; assisting the total energy of the system to be distributed among all the nodes
By performing load computation in each cluster, amount of data to be transmitted to BS is reduced. Therefore, large reduction in the energy dissipation is achieved since communication is more expensive than computation
LEACH
Algorithm Overview
The nodes are grouped into local clusters with one node acting as the local base station (BS) or clusterhead (CH) The CHs are rotated in random fashion among the various sensors Local data fusion is achieved to compress the data being sent from clusters to the BS; resulting the reduction in the energy dissipation and increase in the network lifetime Sensor elect themselves to be local BSs at any any given time with a certain probability and these CHs broadcast their status to other sensor nodes Each node decided which CH to join based on the minimum communication energy Upon clusters formation, each CH creates a schedule for the nodes in its cluster such that radio components of each non-clusterhead node need to be turned OFF always except during the transmit time
The CH aggregates all the data received from the nodes in its cluster before transmitting the compressed data to BS
LEACH
Algorithm Overview
The transmission between CH and BS requires high energy transmission In order to evenly distribute energy usage among the sensor nodes, clusterheads are self-elected at different time intervals The nodes decides to become a CH depending on the amount of energy it has left The decisions to become CH are made independently of the other nodes The system can determine the optimal number of CHs prior to election procedure based on parameters such as network topology and relative costs of computation vs. communication (Optimal number of CHs considered is 5% of the nodes) It has been observed that nodes die in a random fashion No communication exists between CHs Each node has same probability to become a CH
LEACH
Algorithm Details
The operation of LEACH is achieved by rounds Each round begins with a set-up phase (clusters are selected) followed by steadystate phase (data transmission to BS occurs) Advertisement Phase: Initially, each node need to decide to become a CH for the current round based on the suggested percentage of CHs for the network (set prior to this phase) and the number times the node has acted as a CH The node (n) decides by choosing a random number between 0 and 1 If this random number is less than T(n), the nodes become a CH for this round The threshold is set as follows:
1.
P T(n) =
1 P * (r mod 1 P )
If n C G Otherwise
P = desired percentage of CHs r = current round G = set of nodes that have not been CHs in the last 1/P rounds
LEACH
Algorithm Details
1. Advertisement Phase:
Assumptions are (i) each node starts with the same amount of energy and (ii) each CHs consumes relatively same amount of energy for each node Each node elected as CH broadcasts an advertisement message to the rest
During this clusterhead-advertisement phase, the non-clusterhead nodes hear the ads of all CHs and decide which CH to join
A node joins to a CH in which it hears with its advertisement with the highest signal strength
3. Schedule Creation: Upon receiving all the join messages from its members, CH creates a TDMA schedule about their allowed transmission time based on the total number of members in the cluster
LEACH
Algorithm Details
4. Data Transmission:
Each node starts data transmission to their CH based on their TDMA schedule The radio of each cluster member nodes can be turned OFF until their allocated transmission time comes; minimizing the energy dissipation
The CH nodes must keep its receiver ON to receive all the data
Once all the data is received, the CH compresses the data to send it to BS
Multiple Clusters In order to minimize the radio interference between nearby clusters, each CH chooses randomly from a list of spreading CDMA codes and it informs its cluster members to transmit using this code The neighboring CHs radio signals will be filtered out to avoid corruption in the transmission
LEACH
Advantages:
LEACH
Disadvantages:
How to decide the percentage of cluster heads for a network? The topology, density and number of nodes of a network could be different from other networks No suggestions about when the re-election needs to be invoked
The clusterheads farther away from the base station will use higher power and die more quickly than the nearby ones
LEACH
Suggestions/Improvements/Future Work:
Extensions can be included to have hierarchical clustering where each CH will communicate with super-clusterhead until the top layer of hierarchy in which the data needs to be sent to BS The degree and remaining energy of a node may be considered as parameters to decide a clusterhead in a round. If a clusterhead with a limited power used up its power in a round, the data to be transmitting may be lost Since TDMA schedule is used, a large delay may be introduced between event detection and notification at base station. Therefore, the protocol is not suitable for a real-time application
Directed Diffusion
[Intanagonwiwat+ 2000]
Motivated by scaling, robustness and energy efficiency requirements Directed diffusion is data-centric in that all communication is for named data Data generated by sensor nodes is named using attribute-value pairs All nodes in the network are application-aware A node requests data by sending interests for named data
Directed Diffusion
Assumes that sensor networks are task-specific the task types are known at the
Naming
Task descriptions are named (specifies an interest for data matching the list of attribute-value pairs) and also called as interest Example task: Every I ms, for the next T seconds, send me a location of any four-legged animal in subregion R of the sensor field.
task = four-legged animal interval = 20 ms duration = 10 seconds rect = [-100, 100, 200, 400] // detect animal location // send back events every 20 ms // for the next 10 seconds // from sensors within rectangle
Directed Diffusion
Naming
A sensor detecting an animal may generate the following data:
task = four-legged animal instance = horse location = [150, 200] intensity = 0.5 confidence = 0.85 timestamp = 01:30:45 // type of animal seen // instance of this type // node location // signal amplitude measure // confidence in the match // event generation time
Directed Diffusion
Interests and Gradients
Every node maintains an interest cache where each item in the cache corresponds to a distinct interest (different type, interval attributes with disjoint rect attributes)
Interest entries in the cache do not contain information about the sink In some cases, definition of distinct interests allows interest aggregation The interest entry contains several gradient fields, up to one per neighbor When a node receives an interest, it determines if the interest exists in the cache 1. If no matching exist, the node creates an interest entry 2. This entry has single gradient towards the neighbor from which the interest was received with specified data rate Individual neighbors can be distinguished by locally unique identifiers Node adds a gradient with the specified value
If the interest entry exists, but no gradient for the sender of interest
Directed Diffusion
Interests and Gradients
3.
When a gradient expires, it is removed from its interest entry When all gradients for an interest entry have expired, the interest entry is removed from the cache After receiving an interest, a node may re-send the interest to subset of its neighbors To the neighbors, it may seem that interest originated from the sending node even though it may have been generated a distant sink. This represents a local interaction This way, interest diffuse throughout the network and not each interest have been sent to all the neighbors if a node sent matching interest recently Gradient specifies data rate (value) and a direction in directed diffusion, whereas the values can be used to probabilistically forward data in different paths in other sensor networks
Directed Diffusion
Data propagation
2.
If match exists, the node checks its data cache associated with the matching interest entry
If a received data message has a matching data cache entry, the data message is dropped Otherwise, the received message is added to the data cache and the data message is re-sent to the neighbors
Data cache keeps track of the recently seen data items, preventing loops By checking the data cache, a node can determine the data rate of the received events
Directed Diffusion
Reinforcement
After the sink starts receiving low data rate events, it reinforces one neighbor in order to draw down higher quality (higher data rate) events
This is achieved by data driven local rules To enforce a neighbor, the sink may re-send the original interest with higher data rate
task = four-legged animal interval = 20 ms duration = 10 seconds rect = [-100, 100, 200, 400] // detect animal location // send back events every 20 ms // for the next 10 seconds // from sensors within rectangle
When the data rate is higher than before, the node must also reinforce at least one neighbor Reinforcement can be carried out from neighbors to other neighbors in a particular path (i.e., if a path delivers an event faster than others, sink attempts to use this path to draw down high quality data) In Summary, reinforce one path, or part of it, based on observed losses, delay variances, and so on Negative reinforce certain paths because resource levels are low
Directed Diffusion
Directed Diffusion
Advantages:
Data-centric dissemination
Robust multi-path delivery Reinforcement-based adaptation to the empirically best network path Energy savings with in-network data aggregation and caching
Disadvantages:
It may consume memory since all the attribute list is being sent
Suggestions/Improvements/Future Work:
Exploration of possible naming schemes
NW SIZE
NW SIZE
Negotiation-Based Protocols for Disseminating Information in Wireless Sensor Networks (SPIN Protocols)
[Kulik+ 2002]
SPIN (Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation) is a family of
SPIN
SPIN has two basic ideas: Operate efficiently and conserve energy: communicate with each other about the sensor data received already and the data needed still Monitor and adapt changes in their own energy resources: extend the lifetime of the system
SPIN-PP
SPIN-EC SPIN-BC SPIN-RL
Meta Data
Used to uniquely and completely describe the data being collected by sensors If two pieces of actual data are distinguishable, then their meta-data should also be distinguishable Since the format of meta-data is application-specific, each application needs to interpret and synthesize its own meta-data
SPIN
Meta Data SPIN applications must define a meta-data format for representing data that concerns with the costs of storing, retrieving and managing the meta-data SPIN nodes uses three types of communication messages: ADV (new data advertisement) REQ (request for data) DATA (data message)
ADV and REQ messages contain only meta-data that is smaller than the DATA message
SPIN Resource Management SPIN applications are resource-aware and resource-adaptive By knowing the resources at hand, the nodes makes informed decisions about using their resources effectively SPIN specifies an interface that applications can use to find out their available resources rather than specifying a specific energy management protocols
SPIN
The Problem In conventional classic flooding, the source nodes sends data to all its neighbors and the neighbors check their record of already sent data to see if they have forwarded the data to their neighbors. If not, they forward the data and update the record This requires small amount of protocol state at any node, disseminates data quickly in the network where neither the bandwidth is scarce and the links are error prone The problems include: implosion, overlap and resource blindness
Implosion: A node always sends data to its neighbors without being concerned about if the same data has been received by the neighbors from other nodes Overlap: The nodes waste energy and bandwidth by sending the overlapping data Resource Blindness: Nodes do not make decisions based on the energy available
SPIN
The Solution SPIN provides solution to the problems of implosion and overlap by negotiating with each other before transmitting data eliminates the transmission of redundant data Nodes poll their resources before transmitting or processing data by probing the resource manager which keeps track of the resource consumption Nodes can make efficient decisions based on the available energy level
The use meta-data descriptors eliminates the possibility of overlap since the nodes can name the part of the data the nodes are interested in receiving
Resource-awareness of local resources allow sensors to make meaningful decisions to extend longevity
SPIN
SPIN Protocols 1. SPIN-PP: A Threestage handshake protocol for point-to-point media
This protocol works in three stages (ADV-REQ-DATA) with each stage corresponding to one of the messages
The node sends ADV message to its neighbors Neighbors check to see if they already have received or requested this data
SPIN
SPIN Protocols 2. SPIN-EC: SPIN-PP with low-energy threshold
The node will only participate in the full protocol if it believes that it has enough energy to complete the protocol without reaching below the threshold value
It does not prevent nodes from receiving messages such as ADV or REQ below its low-energy threshold, but prevents the nodes to handle a DATA message below the threshold
SPIN
SPIN Protocols 3. SPIN-BC: A Threestage handshake protocol for broadcast media
Improves upon SPIN-PP for broadcast networks by using cheap, one-to-many communications, meaning that all messages are sent to broadcast address and processed by all the nodes that are within transmission range of the sender
This approach is often called broadcast-message-suppression SPIN-BC has three main differences from SPIN-PP are:
All SPIN-BC nodes send their messages to the broadcast address such that all nodes within the transmission range of sender will receive message Upon receiving ADV message, each node checks to see if they already have the data. If not, node sets a random timer to expire, uniformly chosen from a predetermined interval. After timer expires, the node sends an REQ message to the broadcast address, including the original advertiser in the header of message. When the nodes who are not original advertiser receive the REQ, they cancel their own request timers, preventing from sending out redundant copies of the same REQ The nodes will send out the requested data to the broadcast address only once to get the data all its neighbors. It will not respond to multiple requests of the same data
SPIN
SPIN Protocols 4. SPIN-RL: SPIN-BC for lossy networks
Reliable version of SPIN-BC which disseminates data through a broadcast network even in the cases of network loses packets or communication is asymmetric
Adds two adjustments to SPIN-BC to achieve reliability: Each node maintains a record of which advertisements it hears from which nodes, and if does not receive the data within a set time after request, node rerequests the data Nodes limit the frequency with which they will resend the data, meaning that it will wait for a set time before responding to any additional requests for the same data
SPIN
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
It cannot isolate the nodes that do not want to receive information; unnecessary power may be consumed
Suggestions/Improvements/Future Work:
References
[Heinzelman+ 2002] W. Heinzelman, A.P. Chandrakasan and H. Balakrishnan, An Application-Specific Protocol Architecture for Wireless Microsensor Networks, IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, Vol. 1, No. 4, October 2002, pp. 660-670. [Heinzelman+ 2000] W. Heinzelman, A.P. Chandrakasan and H. Balakrishnan, Energy-Efficient Communication Protocol for Wireless Microsensor Networks, IEEE Proceedings of the Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, January 4-7, 2000, Maui, Hawaii. [Intanagonwiwat + 2000] C. Intanagonwiwat, R. Govindan and D. Estrin, Directed Diffusion: A Scalable and Robust Communication Paradigm for Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the Sixth Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networks (MobiCOM 2000), August 2000, Boston, Massachusetts [Kulik+ 2002] J. Kulik, W. Heinzelman and H. Balakrishnan, Negotiation-Based Protocols for Disseminating Information in Wireless Sensor Networks, Wireless Networks 8, 2002, pp. 169-185.