IMPERFECTIONS IN CRYSTALS

• Crystal- solid composed of atoms arranged ,

similar in three directions
• IDEAL CRYSTAL- PERFECT
• REAL CRYSTALS -NOT PERFECT
• Lattice distortion, imperfections, irregularities,
defects present
• Computed yield stress and real yield stress
different
• Many physical and mechanical properties
affected by imperfections
 CLASSIFICATION OF
IMPERFECTIONS/ DEFECTS
FOUR MAIN DIVISIONS
POINT LINE SURFACE VOLUME
DEFECTS DEFECTS (PLANAR, DEFECTS
INTERFACIAL, GRAIN

BOUNDARIES)
DEFECTS
•Vacancies •Edge •Grain Boundaries •Cracks
•Interstitials •Tilt Boundaries
•Impurities •Screw •Twin Boundaries •Stacking
•Electronic faults
 POINT DEFECTS
• ONE WHICH IS COMPLETELY LOCAL IN ITS EFFECTS
eg: VACANT LATTICE SITE
• POINT DEFECT IF INTRODUCED- INCREASES INTERNAL ENERGY
• No. of defects (nd ) at equilibrium at a certain temperature

nd = N (e –Ed/kT)

• N = total no. of atomic sites/cubic metre or per mole

• d = Energy of activation necessary to form the defect
E

• k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 X 10-23 J/atom-K (8.62 X 10-5eV/atom-K)

• T = absolute temperature

• Possible point defects are:

» Vacancies
» Interstitials
» Impurities
» Electronic defects
 VACANCIES
An unoccupied atom position within a crystal lattice
- empty atom sites
Lattice vacancies are a stable feature of metals at all
temperatures above absolute zero
Heat treatment processes involve transport of atoms
through lattice with the help of vacancies
Vacancies- lead to increase in randomness of
structure
Vacancies- due to improper packing /thermal
vibrations at high temps.
Self-interstitial
Vacancy
Frankel defect
Schottky defect
Interstitial impurity atom Substitutional impurity atom
 IMPURITY POINT DEFECTS
Two types:
Interstitial eg: C-Fe Substitutional eg: Cu-Ni
Fills the Solute atoms replace/
voids/interstices substitute host atoms
•High APF, Depends on:
positions small Atomic Size factor (± 15%)
•Hence, small Crystal Structure (same)
diameter impurity Electronegativity
than host atoms (extremes- intermetallic compound;
otherwise, Sub.Solid Solns)
Valances (high-low: tendency to
dissolve)
 ELECTRONIC DEFECTS
• Result of errors in charge distribution
in solids
• These defects free to move in crystal
under the influence of electric field
• Vacancy or interstitial impurity may
produce excess/deficit of ve /_ve
charges
• Eg: ZnO- excess of interstitial zinc ions
 LINE DEFECTS
2D defects
Dislocation:
A disturbed region
between two
substantially perfect
parts of a crystal

Two types:
Edge
Screw
 LINE DEFECTS
2D defects
Dislocation:
A disturbed region
between two
substantially perfect
parts of a crystal

Two types:
Edge
Screw
Edge dislocation
Screw dislocation
MIXED
BURGER’S VECTOR
 Angle of misalignment

High angle
grain boundary

Small angle
grain boundary

Angle of misalignment

Small & High angle grain Boundaries and

adjacent atom positions
Tilt boundary having an
angle of
mis-orientation Θ results
from an alignment of
edge dislocations
• In addition to slip, plastic deformation in metallic
materials occur by the formation of mechanical twins, or
twinning.
• The concept of a twin A shear
force can produce atomic
displacements such that on one
side of a plane (the twin
boundary), atoms are located in
mirror-image positions of atoms
on the other side.
 Open circles represent atoms that did not move, and dashed and
solid circles represent original and final positions, respectively
The displacement magnitude within the twin region (indicated
by arrows) is proportional to the distance from the twin plane

Demonstration in Figures (a) &(b)

Slip and twinning deformations as compared for a single
crystal subjected to a shear stress .
• eg: for BCC metals, the twin plane and direction are
(112) and [111], respectively.
• Twinning occurs on a definite crystallographic plane
and in a specific direction that depend on crystal
structure
• For twinning, the shear deformation is homogeneous
• For slip, the crystallographic orientation above and
below the slip plane is the same both before and after
the deformation;
• for twinning, there will be a reorientation across the
twin plane.
• In addition, slip occurs in distinct atomic spacing
multiples, whereas the atomic displacement for
twinning is less than the interatomic separation.
• Mechanical twinning occurs in metals that have
BCC and HCP crystal structures, at low
temperatures, and at high rates of loading (shock
loading)
• There are few operable slip systems.
• The amount of bulk plastic deformation from
twinning is normally small relative to that resulting
from slip.
• Annealing twins are found in FCC struture metals
• Mechanical twins in BCC & HCP metals