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Chapter 49
Table of Contents
Section 1 Neurons and Nerve Impulses Section 2 Structure of the Nervous System Section 3 Sensory Systems Section 4 Drugs and the Nervous System
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Chapter 49 Objectives
Describe the structure of a neuron. Summarize the electrical and chemical conditions that characterize a resting potential. Outline the electrical and chemical changes that occur during an action potential. Explain the role of neurotransmitters in transmitting a signal across a synapse.
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Chapter 49
Neuron Structure
A neuron, or nerve cell, is made up of a cell body, dendrites, and axons. A cell body is the nucleus of a neuron and most of its organelles. Dendrites extend from the cell body and are covered by a membrane. The axon is a long membrane-bound projection that transmits information away from the cell body in the form of electrical signals.
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Parts of a Neuron
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A neuron, like all other cells, has a membrane potential. A membrane potential is a difference in the electrical charge across a cell membrane. A membrane potential can change with an addition or removal of ions within the cell. Ions move in and out of the cell by passing through proteins that act as ion channels. Whether the ion channels are open or closed affects the membrane potential.
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Synaptic Transmission
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Release of Neurotransmitter
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Chapter 49 Objectives
Identify the two main parts of the central nervous system. Summarize the functions of the major parts of the brain. Describe the roles of the sensory and motor divisions of the peripheral nervous system. Distinguish between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
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Chapter 49 Brain
Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the upper part of the brain that receives sensation and controls movement. The cerebrum is made of two hemispheres, called the cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere is made up of four lobes, called the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.
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Cerebrum, continued The folded outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is the portion of the cerebrum that controls the higher mental functions, general movement, organ function, perception, and behavioral reactions. The many folds of the cerebral cortex allow the brain to have a large surface area and still fit into the skull.
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Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Cerebrum, continued The cerebral cortex is called gray matter. Beneath the gray matter is white matter. White matter is made up of myelinated axons, which link specific regions of the cortex with each other and with other neural centers.
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Chapter 49 Cerebrum
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This section of the brain is made up of two parts, the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus directs most incoming sensory signals to the proper region of the cerebral cortex. The hypothalamus helps maintain homeostasis and directly controls most of the bodys hormone production.
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This section of the brain is made up of three parts: the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The midbrain relays visual and auditory information. The pons relays communications between the cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum.
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Brain Stem, continued The last section of the brain stem is the medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata serves as both a relay center and a control center for heart rate, respiration rate, and other homeostatic activities. The brain stem also has a network of neurons called the reticular formation. This section of the brain stem helps control respiration and circulation and helps separate signals that are important from those that are not.
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The cerebellum lies below and behind the cerebral hemispheres and helps to coordinate muscle action. The cerebellum receives sensory impulses from muscles, tendons, joints, eyes, and ears and other brain centers.
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Chapter 49 Cerebellum
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The spinal cord is a column of nervous tissue that starts at the medulla oblongata and runs throughout the vertebral column. The spinal cord is composed of white and gray matter.
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Sensory Division
The sensory division of the peripheral nervous system contains sensory receptors and the interneurons that connect them to the central nervous system. Sensory receptors receive information from the bodys external and internal environments.
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The motor division of the peripheral nervous system allows the body to react to sensory information. The motor division of the peripheral nervous system is made up of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
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Knee-Jerk Response
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Chapter 49 Reflex
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Chapter 49 Objectives
List the stimuli to which each of the five types of sensory receptors respond. Identify the parts of the ear responsible for hearing and for maintaining balance. Describe the structure of the eye and roles of rods and cones in vision. Discuss how taste and smell are detected. Compare the detection of touch, temperature and pain.
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Perception of Stimuli
In order to detect changes in the environment, organisms use their sense organs. Sense organs are organs that receive stimuli and give rise to the senses such as sight, smell, hearing and pain. Sense organs are part of the sensory division of the peripheral nervous system.
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Tympanic Membrane
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Chapter 49 Vision
The eyes detect light and transmit signals to visual processing areas of the brain. The retina is where all structures focus light. The retina is the light sensitive layer. It receives images and transmits them through the optic nerve to the brain.
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In order to reach the retina, light must first pass through the cornea, pupil, iris, and lens.
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The cornea is a transparent membrane that forms the front portion of the eyeball, where light is first encountered. The pupil is the next to receive light and is the opening to the interior of the eye. The amount of light that enters the pupil is controlled by the colored circular part of the eye, the iris. The lens is a crystalline structure that muscles adjust to focus the light on the retina.
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The retina interprets light through photoreceptors that translate light energy into electrical signals that can be interpreted by the brain. The photoreceptors within the eye can be broken down into two types: rods and cones. Rods can detect dim light and play a major role in noncolor and night vision. Cones can distinguish colors and are sensitive to bright light.
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Chemoreceptors responsible for taste are called taste buds and can be found on the tongue, the throat, and the roof of the mouth. Taste buds are found on the tongue between bumps called papillae.
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Chapter 49 Objectives
Define the relationship between addiction and tolerance. Explain the physical basis of cocaine addiction. Identify six types of psychoactive drugs. List the effects of alcohol and tobacco on the body.
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Psychoactive Drugs
Drugs are substances that cause a change in a persons physical or psychological state. A psychoactive drug is a drug that alters the functioning of the central nervous system. A psychoactive drug can be manmade or natural.
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Chapter 49 Addiction
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Chapter 49 Tolerance
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Action of Cocaine
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Chapter 49 Withdrawal
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1. Which of the following is true about the cerebral cortex? A. It is located deep in the brain. B. It is the folded outer covering of the brain. C. It is part of the peripheral nervous system. D. It is a lobed, highly folded structure located at the back of the brain.
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The effect of a drug on the body varies with the size of the dose and an individuals tolerance to the drug. Explain the difference between the effective dose and the lethal dose of a drug.
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Extended Response
Base your answers to parts A & B on the information below. Both alcohol and tobacco can have a negative effect on human health. Part A Susan is addicted to alcohol. Predict what might happen if she quit drinking. Part B Mark smokes a pack of cigarettes a day. Describe some of the health risks Mark faces if he continues to smoke for a long period of time.
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