Memory Systems

A digital processor generally requires a facility for storing information. The part of a digital processor, which provides this storage facility is called the memory.
Two classes memory

Magnetic Memory

Semiconductor memory

 A ferromagnetic material can be magnetized in a particular direction by the application of suitable magnetizing force. The ability of a magnetic material to store information in two different states, has resulted magnetic memory.  Recent advances in semiconductor technology have led to economical and reliable MSI and LSI semiconductor memory chips that are much smaller in size and much faster in operation than conventional magnetic memories.
S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

 Transistor flip-flops (either bipolar or MOS) stores 1 bit of information and is referred to a memory cell.  Faster operation is obtained with a bipolar memory, but greater packing density and therefore reduced size and cost as well as lower power requirements are characteristics of MOS memory.

Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Read Only Memory (ROM)

S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

Memory Parameters
 Memory cell: An electrical circuit or device used to store a single binary digit (bit) is known as a memory cell. Charged capacitors, flip flop, single spot on magnetic tape or disk are some examples of memory cell.  Word: A set of binary cells is physically grouped together to form a unit called a word. A register consisting of eight flip flops can be considered to be a memory that is storing an 8-bit word. The word size in modern computers varies from 4 to 64 bits. A group of 8 bits is known as a byte. Word size can be expressed in bytes as well as in bits. A word size of 16 bits is also a word of 2 byte.
S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

Memory Parameters
 Density or Capacity: The number of bits that can be stored in a particular memory system is known as its capacity or density. A particular memory has greater density than other means that it can store more bits in the same amount of space. For example, a memory of 16 twenty-bit word means the capacity of the memory is 320 bits. It is common practice to refer memory capacity in K. The designation 1K represents 210 =1024. The number of words in a memory is often a multiple of 1024. Thus a memory that has a storage capacity of 2K v 20 comprises of 2048 (2 v 1024) words of 20 bits, which means the capacity of the memory unit is 40,960 (2048 v 20) bits, In the recent times larger memories are designed as M or meg. 1M equal 1000K, which means 1M = 220 = 1,048,576.  Address: The location in the memory system where a word is to be stored is called the address of the word. Similarly one has to specify its address to retrieve a word from memory. Addresses are generally expressed as a binary number. Each word in a memory has an address code, which refers to a particular location in a memory. S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur
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Memory Parameters
 Read Operation: The read operation, sometimes known as fetch operation, is an operation whereby the binary word stored in a particular memory location (address) is sensed and then transferred to another device. If a word stored in some location is to be read then its address is entered in memory address register (MAR). When the read signal is activated by the control unit, the number is copied into memory buffer register (MBR). Copying process, which leaves the word undisturbed in its location is called non-destructive read out. It may be destructive also. It all depends upon the device used for a binary cell in the memory. Flip-flop binary cells, for example, are non-destructive. Reading from binary cells made with magnetic cores is destructive. In this case, whatever is read from the selected memory cell must be written back to preserve its contents.
S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

Memory Parameters
 Write Operation: When a new word is placed into a particular memory location, it is referred to as write or store operation. In order to write a word in a particular location, It is placed initially in memory buffer register or data register and the address of the location is entered in the memory address register. The write signal is then initiated and the new word is stored into the memory location replacing the previously stored data.  Access Time: It is the time interval between the initiation of a read signal and the availability of the required word in the memory buffer register. Access time is a measure of a memory devices operating speed. The method of accessing memory depends on the particular device used for binary cell.  Write Time: The time interval between the initiation of a write signal and the storing information in the specified address (location) in the memory is termed as write time. If reading information from the memory is destructive, the total time required for read and rewrite is called the memory cycle time.
S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

Simple Block Diagram of a 8 v 4 bit Memory System

A Binary Memory Cell with RS FlipFlop

S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

Random Access Memory (RAM)

 A RAM has an addressing structure that allows either reading from or writing into the memory. RAM uses where frequent data change is required.  Address is a series of binary digits used to specify the location of a word stored in memory. The time required to write one word into memory or to read one word from memory is known as access time.  In the read mode, data from the selected memory cell is made available at the output. In the write mode, information at the data input is written into (stored in) the selected cell.
S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

Random Access Memory (RAM)

When high speed is required, the BJT is the RAM of choice ( access time ~ 35 ns), in contrast to the MOS RAM (access time ~ 400 ns ). On the other hand, cell density is high ( ~ 4096 ) in MOS compared to that in bipolar ( ~1024 ). A memory cell is simply a flip-flop. However some special feature is incorporated into it in order to facilitate addressing the cell, writing into it, and reading from it. The memory unit that loses its contents with a loss of electrical power is known as volatile memory. Since RAM cell is made of flip-flops, a loss of power means a loss of data, and thus RAM is volatile memory.
S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

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Internal Architecture of a Simple 16 X4 RAM Chip

S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

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Static Memory (SRAM ) and Dynamic Memory ( DRAM )

 Memory cells that are capable of storing binary information indefinitely are known as static memory. For example, the BJT or MOS flip-flops remain set or reset as long as power is applied. A magnetic core remains set or reset even power is removed.  A dynamic memory is composed of memory cells whose contents tend to decay over a period of time ( ~ ms ); thus their contents must be restored (refreshed) periodically. The leaky capacitance associated with a MOSFET can be used to store charge, and is the basic unit used to form a memory.  The need for extra timing signals and logic to periodically refresh the dynamic memory is a disadvantage, but the higher speeds, lower power dissipation, the increased cell density outweighs the disadvantages.
S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

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A Static NMOS Memory cell (SRAM) using NMOS Transistor

S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

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A Symbolic Representation of a DRAM Cell

S1,S2,S3,S4 represent four MOSFET switches and are controlled by various address decoder outputs. CS is the actual storage cell  To write data to the cell CS, decoder signal closes switch S1 and S2 while keeping S3 and S4 open To read data from the cell, S2,S3,S4 are closed and S1 is kept open
S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

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One Transistor NMOS DRAM Cell

S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

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Read Only Memory ( ROM )

o A Read-Only Memory (ROM) is a memory device intended to store information which is fixed. There is an initial operation during which information is written in the memory and thereafter the memory is read only and is not again written into. Since the data are permanently stored in each cell, a loss of power does not cause a loss of data, and thus a ROM provides nonvolatile storage. For example, a look up table that stores the values of mathematical constants such as trigonometrical functions etc. o Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) : Memories which allow the user to establish the store of information in the memory. Operation is essentially the same as that of a ROM, but the store data can be set in the memory by reading into the PROM at the users convenience.
S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

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Read Only Memory ( ROM )

o Erasable PROM ( EPROM) : An application in which the data may change from time to time might call for the use of an erasable PROM (EPROM). The data can be programmed into the EPROM and can be erased and reprogrammed if desired. Such memory devices are ROM in the sense that to change the stored information it is necessary to interrupt the digital processing in which the memory is involved. Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM): The limitation of EPROM are removal of the chip from the circuit for erase and reprogram, unable to erase a single select address etc. The limitations are removed by electrical erasable technique.
S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

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An Array of Bipolar ROM Cells

PROMS with Fusable Links

S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

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Cross Section Schematic of a MOS EPROM ( Quartz Window on EPROM Chip )

S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

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Applications of ROM:
1. It can be used to provide the realization of an arbitrary truth table. 2. ROMs are widely used in code conversion and in connection with alphanumeric displays. 3. ROM is used to yield results that would otherwise be achieved by computation involving a sequence of arithmetic operations. Examples: 1. Main memory in a hand calculator RAM 2. Storing values of logarithms ROM 3. Storing prices of vegetable produce EPROM 4. Emergency stop procedures for an industrial mill now in the design stage PROM
S. Kal, IIT-Kharagpur

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