Analog

Communication
Suresh P. Nair [AIE, ME, (PhD)] MIEEE
Professor & Head
Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering
Royal College of Engineering and Technology
Chiramanangad PO, Akkikkavu, Thrissur, Kerala, India
Module 2
MODULATIO
N
Introduction
Topics to be covered
Need for Modulation
What is Modulation?
Types of Modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Angle Modulation
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
Baseband vs Passband Transmission
Baseband Signal:- Information bearing Signal or
Message Signal.
The term Baseband refers to the band of
frequencies representing the original signal
obtained fromthe source (or Base).
Voice (0-4kHz)
TV (0-6 MHz)
A signal may be sent in its baseband format when
a dedicated wired channel is available.
Otherwise, it must be converted to passband.
Need for Modulation
Size of the antenna
For efficient radiation, the size of the antenna should be /10
or more (preferably around /4 ), where is the wavelength
of the signal to be radiated.
Easy to Multiplex
Several message signals can be transmitted on a given
channel, by assigning to each message signal an appropriate
slot in the channel.
Channel Selectivity
Each station can be assigned a suitable carrier so that the
corresponding programmaterial can be received by tuning to
the station desired.
Need for Modulation
Improved Signal to Noise Ratio
Will be dealt in future lectures
Less Fading of transmitted signal
As the energy of a signal is proportional to its frequency,
fading by the atmospheric particle is less
What is Modulation?
So for better transmission, we need to send a high
frequency signal.
But message signal is of low frequency.
If we alter the frequency of message signal, the
information will be lost.
We can send a high frequency signal which reflects
the characteristics of message signal.
This high frequency signal is called CARRIER
SIGNAL
What is Modulation?
The message signal is called MODULATING SIGNAL
or BASEBAND SIGNAL.
The word modulation means the systematic
alteration of one waveform, called the carrier,
according to the characteristic of another
waveform, the modulating signal or the message.
We use c(t ) and m(t ), to denote the carrier and
the message waveforms respectively.
What is Modulation?
The resultant signal after modulation is called
MODULATED SIGNAL.
For study purpose, the commonly used carrier and
message signal is SINUSOIDAL WAVE.
Transmitter Side - Modulation
Receiver Side - Demodulation
Definition for Modulation
Modulation is defined as the process by
which some characteristic of a carrier wave
is varied in accordance with the message
signal.
Modulation and Demodulation
Types of Modulation
Modulation - Characteristics of Carrier Wave is
varied in accordance with the characteristics of
message signal.
Consider a Carrier wave:
c(t) = Ac Cos ( )
Instantaneous
Value
Maximum
Amplitude
Angle
( 2fc t + )
Frequency
Phase
Types of Modulation
MODULATION
Angle
Modulation
Amplitude
Modulation (AM)
Phase
Modulation (PM)
Frequency
Modulation (FM)
AM DSB FC
AM DSB SC
SSB
VSB
NBFM
WBFM
NBPM
WBPM
Amplitude & Angle Modulation -
Definition
AM, FM & PM
AM The amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
message signal.
FM The frequency of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
message signal.
PM The phase of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
message signal.
AM & FM Waveforms
AM
FM
MESSAGE
CARRIER
FM & PM Waveforms
FM
PM
MESSAGE
CARRIER
TDM
FDM
FDM
AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
Definition of Amplitude
Modulation (AM)
Amplitude Modulation (AM) is defined as the
process in which the amplitude of the Carrier
Signal, c(t) is varied about a mean value,
linearly with the Base band Signal, m(t).
Types of Amplitude Modulation
AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
Non Linear
AM
Linear
AM
AM DSB FC
AM DSB SC
SSB
VSB
Topics to be Covered
AM DSB FC (or simply AM)
AM DSB SC
SSB
VSB
Signal to Noise Ratio of AM
AM DSB FC (or simply AM)
Introduction
Signal & Spectrum representation of AM
Power Relation
Modulators
Switching Modulator
Square Law Modulator
Demodulators
Square Law Demodulator
Envelope Detector
Introduction
Introduction
AM DSB FC or simply AM
Consider a Carrier Signal:
Message signal m(t) and Carrier signal c(t) are
independent.
AM is defined as the process in which the amplitude of
the Carrier Signal, c(t) is varied about a mean value,
linearly with the Base band Signal, m(t).
where K
a
= 1/A
c
, is the Amplitude Sensitivity Factor or
Modulation Sensitivity measured in volt
-1
Non Linearity in AM DSB FC
Does Full-Amplitude Modulation Satisfy the Linearity Property ?
Amplitude modulation, as defined in Eq. (2.2), fails the
linearity test (i.e. Super Position Theorem)in a strict sense.
1) Suppose that m(t) = m
1
(t) + m
2
(t). Let s
1
(t) and s
2
(t) denote the AM
waves produced by these two components acting separately.
2) Let the operator H denote the amplitude modulation process,
therefore we have:
? A
1 1
( ) 1 ( ) cos( )
c a c
s t A k m t t = +
? A
2 2
( ) 1 ( ) cos( )
c a c
s t A k m t t = +
and
, )
1 2 1 2
1 2
( ) ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) cos( )
( ) ( )
c a c
H m t m t A k m t m t t
s t s t
+ = + +
|
= +
The superposition principle is violated!
Conditions for AM
Modulation Index of AM
K
a
= 1 / A
c
K
a
*m(t) = (1/A
c
) * A
m
Cos (2f
m
t)
= (1/A
c
) * A
m
(1)
= A
m
/ A
c
= k
a
*A
m
This Ka * Am is called as Modulation Index.
It is denoted using m
a
or
Modulation Index of AM
Two cases arise, depending on the magnitude of
k
a
m(t), when comparing with unity:
1) Undermodulation, which is governed by the condition
( ) 1 for all
a
k m t t e 1 + k
a
m(t) > 0
2) Overmodulation, which is governed by the weaker
condition
( ) 1 for some
a
k m t t "
Percentage of modulation | k
a
m(t)v 100%
Modulation Index
Important conclusion:
1. The envelope of the AM wave has a waveform that
bears a one-to-one correspondence with that of the
message signal if the percentage modulation is less
than or equal to 100%.
2. If percentage modulation > 100%, the modulated
wave is said to suffer from envelope distortion.
Modulation Index
Modulation Index
Modulation Index
Modulation Index
Signal Representation of AM
An unmodulated RF An unmodulated RF
carrier wave carrier wave
A carrier wave A carrier wave
amplitude amplitude
modulated (AM) with modulated (AM) with
a simple audio tone a simple audio tone
Signal Representation of AM
1
st
Condition
Envelope
Distortion
Spectrum Representation of AM
To draw the spectrum of any wave, we need to
find out the Fourier Transformof that signal.
Cos (x) = (1/2)*(e
jx
+ e
-jx
)
F [m(t) Cos (x)] = M(f x)/2 + M(f + x)/2
) ) B A B A B A + + = cos
2
1
cos
2
1
) cos( ) cos(
) )t
A A K
t
A A K
t A
t t A A K t A t s
m c
m c a
m c
m
c
a
c c
m c
m
c
a
c c


+ + + =
+ =
cos
2
cos
2
cos
cos cos cos ) (
42
Chapter 2: Signal Analysis and Mixing 2009
Frequency shifting (Modulation)
)
,
)
0
0
j t
f t e F

=
Therefore multiplying a time function by causes its
spectral density to be translated in frequency by
0
.
0
j t
e

Example
) , ) )
0 0 0
1
cos
2
f t t F F = + +
|
)
F
Some properties of the Fourier transform

)
0
1
2
F +
)
0
1
2
F
Spectrum Representation of AM
Spectrum Representation of AM
,
,
? A ? A ) ( ) (
2
) ( ) (
2
) 2 cos( ) ( ) 2 cos(
) ( ) (
c c
c a
c c
c
c a c c c
AM AM
f f M f f M
A k
f f f f
A
t f t m k A t f A F
t s F f S
+ + + + + =
+ =
=
o o
x x
Spectrum Representation of AM
From Eqn. (2.5), we can draw the spectrum
as:
Bandwidth
Bandwidth of AM
Spectral Overlap (2
nd
Condition)
Spectral overlap phenomenon in amplitude modulation. The
phenomenon arises when the carrier frequency
c
is less than the
highest frequency component
m
of the modulating signal.
2
nd
Condition
Spectral
Overlap
Time domain & Frequency domain
Phasor Representation of AM
Ac/2
Ac/2
AcKaAm/4
AcKaAm/4
AcKaAm/4
AcKaAm/4
Ac/2 +
AcKaAm/4
Ac/2 +
AcKaAm/4
Power relation in AM
Power relation in AM
Transmission Efficiency of AM
Carrier Power Vs Sideband Power
AM Modulators
1. Switching Modulator
Utilizing the Switching characteristic or time varying
characteristic of a diode.
2. Square Law Modulator
Utilizing the non linear characteristic of any square
lawdevice ( like Diode, Transistor etc.)
Switching Modulator
Switching Modulator
Assume that
Let
The diode will turn on if and will turn off if
The output across the load resistor is
Since g(t) is a periodic rectangular function, the Fourier series is
) (t m A
c
""
0 ) ( " t c 0 ) ( e t c
) 2 cos( ) ( t f A t c
c c
x =
) ( )] 2 cos( ) ( [
) ( ) (
0 ) ( 0
0 ) ( ) (
) (
0
t g t f A t m
t g t v
t c
t c t v
t v
c c
i
i
x + =
=
|
,
|
e
"
=
Switching Modulator
Switching Modulator
Switching Modulator
Square Law Modulator
AM Demodulators
1. Square Law Demodulator
2. Envelope Detector
Square Law Demodulator
Envelope Detector
Envelope Detector
Envelope Detector
The operations of the circuit requires
careful selection of X=RC
If RC is too large, discharging will be
slow and the circuit cannot follow a
decreasing envelope.
When RC is too small the ripples will
be high.
The ripples are finally removed by
LPF.
The DC value is blocked by a
capacitor.
Envelope Detector
Features of AM
AM system is very cheap to build and
maintain.
AM is wasteful of power - max efficiency is
33%
AM is wasteful of bandwidth - twice the
message bandwidth is required
Demerits of AM DSB FC
An unmodulated RF
carrier requires narrow
bandwidth
Modulation results in
creation of a carrier and 2
Sidebands. This
requires more power.
Moreover carrier contains
no information.
Why DSB SC?
The carrier contains no information.
So we can think of avoiding or suppressing carrier.
Linear Modulation
In its most general form, linear modulation is defined
by:
where s
I
(t) is the in-phase component and s
Q
(t) the
quadrature component of the modulated wave s(t).
In linear modulation, both s
I
(t) and s
Q
(t) are low-pass
signals that are linearly related to the message signal
m(t).
In-Phase and Quadrature
Components of Linear Modulation
Depending on s
I
(t) and s
Q
(t), three types of linear
modulation are defined:
1) DSB SC modulation, where only the upper and lower
sidebands are transmitted.
2) SSB modulation, where only the lower or the upper
sideband is transmitted.
3) VSB modulation, where only a vestige of one of the
sidebands and a modified version of the other sideband are
transmitted.
In-Phase and Quadrature
Components of Linear Modulation
There are 2 important points to be noted from this table:
1). The in-phase component s
I
(t) is solely dependent on the message m(t).
2). The quadrature component s
Q
(t) is a filtered version of m(t). Spectral
modification of the modulated wave s(t) is solely due to s
Q
(t) .
Linear Modulation Schemes
1. AM DSB SC (AM Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier)
2. SSB (Single Side Band)
3. VSB (Vestigial Side Band)
AM DSB SC
Derivation
Signal & Spectra
Modulators
Product Modulator
Balanced Modulator
Ring Modulator (Double Balanced Modulator)
Demodulator
Coherent Detector
Costas Receiver
Introduction
DSB-SC modulation is generated by using a
product modulator that simply multiplies the
message signal m(t) by the carrier wave
A
c
cos(2xf
c
t). Specifically, we write:
s(t) = A
c
m(t) cos(2xf
c
t) (2.8)
The modulated signal s(t) undergoes a phase reversal
whenever the message signal m(t) crosses zero.
This is called double side-band suppressed carrier (DSB-
SC) modulation.
). 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t f t m A t s
c c DSB
x =
Introduction
1. Transmission bandwidth is same as standard AM.
2. Transmitted power is less than that used by standard AM.
Signal Representation
Double-sideband-suppressed carrier modulation. (a) Message
signal. (b) DSB-SC modulated wave, resulting from multiplication of
the message signal by the sinusoidal carrier wave.
Signal Representation
Spectrum Representation
The envelope of a DSB-SC signal is different from
the message signal; unlike the case of an AM wave
that has a percentage modulation < 100 %.
From Equ. (2.8), the Fourier transform of s(t) is
obtained as:
Spectrum of AM DSB SC
When m(t) is limited to the interval -W < f < W, as
in Figure 2.6a, the spectrum S(f) of the DSB-SC
wave s(t) is as illustrated in Figure 2.6b.
Spectrum Representation
Spectrum of AM DSB SC
Because it doesnt
have components of
the carrier, we call
this kind of
modulation
suppressed carrier
Time domain Vs Frequency domain
Time-domain
(on the left)
and frequency-
domain (on the
right)
characteristics
of DSB-SC
modulation
produced by a
sinusoidal
modulating
wave. (a)
Modulating
wave. (b)
Carrier wave. (c)
DSB-SC
modulated
wave. Note
that = 2x].
Modulators
Product Modulator
Balanced Modulator
Ring Modulator (Double Balanced Modulator)
Product Modulator
Balanced Modulator
Ring Modulator
Ring Modulator
Ring Modulator
Ring Modulator
Ring Modulator
Therefore, we have
Since c(t) is a periodic function, the Fourier series can be
expressed as:
The desired DSB-SC AM signal is obtained by passing
through a bandpass filter with center frequency and
bandwidth 2W.
) ( ) ( ) ( t c t m t v
o
=
) (
0
t v
c
f
Demodulators
1. Coherent Detector
AM DSB SC Modulator + Filter
Also called Synchronous or Homodyne
Detector.
Quadrature Null Effect Phase Error.
2. Costas Receiver
Employs two Coherent detectors.
Avoids Quadrature Null Effect.
Coherent Detector
Coherent Detector
Coherent Detector Quadrature
Null Effect
Assume the Local Oscillator signal have same
frequency of that of the Carrier, but a different
phase.
Let the Phase difference is .
The LO signal is:
Coherent Detector Quadrature
Null Effect
Costas Receiver
Costas Receiver
) )
) ? A J J
J
cos 2 cos ) (
2
cos cos ) ( ) (
+ + =
+ =
t t m
A
t t t m A t v
c
c
c c c I
) ( cos
2
) ( t m
A
t m
c
I
= J
) ? A J J sin 2 sin ) (
2
) ( + + = t t m
A
t v
c
c
Q
) ( sin
2
) ( t m
A
t m
c
Q
= J
I-channel:
After downconverwsion,
At the output of the lowpass filter, with |H(0)| = 1,
Q-channel:
Costas Receiver
Feedback path:
At the output of the multiplier,
At the output of the lowpass filter,
The purpose of h
f
(t) is to smooth out fast time variations
of m
e
(t).
The output of the VCO is described by
J
J J
2 sin ) (
8
cos sin ) (
4
) (
2
2
2
2
t m
A
t m
A
t m
c
c
e
=
=

= X X X d t h m t m
f e ef
) ( ) ( ) (
)
( ) cos ( )
VCO c
x t t t J = +
Costas Receiver
Where
c
is the VCOs reference frequency and is
the residual phase angle due to the tracking error.
The constant k
v
is the frequency sensitivity of the VCO in rad/s/volt.
The instantaneous frequency in radians/sec of the VCOs output is
given by:
Clearly, if J(t) were small, then the instantaneous frequency would be
close to
c
and the output of the I-path would also be proportional to
m(t).
, ) ( ) (
0

=
t
ef v
d m k t X X J
? A
), (
) (
t m k
dt
t t d
ef v c
c
+ =
+

J
Why SSB?
The carrier contains no audio information.
The sidebands contains duplicated information
AM SSB SC (SSB)
Hilbert Transform
Derivation
Signal and Spectrum
Modulators
Frequency Discriminator
Phase Discriminator (Hartley Modulator)
Demodulators
Coherent Detector
Envelope Detector
Introduction to SSB
Two main parameters to be considered while
designing a Communication Systemare :
1. Transmission Power
2. Transmission Bandwidth.
In AM DSB FC, both are very high.
In AM DSB SC Transmission Power is less than AM
DSB FC, but Transmission Bandwidth is same as
that of AM DSB FC.
Introduction to SSB
In AM SSB SC or SSB, only one Sideband will be
Transmitted (Both the Sidebands contain the same
information).
The Transmission Power as well as the Transmission
Bandwidth can be reduced.
Transmission Bandwidth will be reduced to half of
that of AMDSB FC & AMDSB SC.
To accomplish these merits, the Equipment Design in
more Complex.
SSB Derivation
A single sideband AM signal can be
represented mathematically as:
USSB AM LSSB AM
Spectrum of SSB
Suppose we want to transmit the upper sideband, then using an
ideal bandpass filter with center frequency yields the desired
result, namely,
2
m
c
W
f +
Spectrum of SSB
SSB Modulators
Frequency Discriminator
Generating SSB signal from DSB SC signal by
using BPF
Phase Discriminator
Generating SSB signal by using Hilbert
Transform
Frequency Discriminator
Frequency Discriminator
Phase Discriminator
SSB Demodulators
Coherent Detector
Envelope Detector
Coherent Detector
Same Coherent Detector used for AM DSB SC.
Envelope Detector (Modified)
Spectrum of SSB
Demerit of SSB
Selective Filtering using filters with sharp cutoff
characteristics. Sharp cutoff filters are difficult to design.
The audio signal spectrum has no dc component, therefore ,
the spectrum of the modulated audio signal has a null around
the carrier frequency.
This means a less than perfect filter can do a reasonably good
job of filtering the DSB to produce SSB signals.
VSB
Derivation
Signal and Spectra
Modulators
Frequency Discriminator
Demodulators
Introduction to VSB
Introduction to VSB
To produce SSB signal from DSB signal ideal filters should be used.
In VSB system one sideband and a vestige of other sideband are
transmitted together.
The resulting signal has a bandwidth > the bandwidth of the
modulating (baseband) signal but < the DSB signal bandwidth.
Spectrum of DSB SC, SSB & VSB
Generation of VSB
Generation of VSB AM
generate a DSB-SC AMsignal
pass the DSB-SC AM signal through a sideband filter with
frequency response H(f)
Response of the Filter
Response of the Filter
Demodulation of VSB
Basics of Signal to Noise Ratio
Basics of Signal to Noise Ratio