Water

Life on earth evolved in water,and all life still depends on water.

At least 80% of the mass of living organisms is water and almost all chemical reactions of life take place in aqueous solution.
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Hydrogen bonds
Water molecules are charged, with the oxygen atom being slightly negative and the hydrogen atoms being slightly positive. These opposite attract each other, forming hydrogen bonds. These are weak, long distance bonds that are very common and very important in biology.
H H O H O H

Covalent Bonds
H

Water Molecules

Hydrogen bonds
H H

Water has a number of Important properties essential for life.

Solvent- It is a very good solvent. Molecules such as salts, sugars, amino acids dissolve readily in water (once dissolved they can be transported e.g. glucose in the bloodstream). Specific heat capacity- Water has a high specific heat capacity (4.2 joules of energy to heat 1g water by 1oC). This means that water does not change temperature easily. This minimises fluctuations in temperature inside cells and means that sea temperature is quite constant. Latent heat of vaporisation- Water requires a lot of energy to change state from a liquid to a gas, providing a cooling mechanism in animals (sweating and panting) and plants (transpiration). As water evaporates it extracts heats from the surrounding area, cooling the 3 organism

Water has a number of Important properties essential for life.

Density- Water is its solid state (ice) is less dense than the liquid state.As the air temperature cools, bodies of water freeze from the surface, forming a layer of ice with the liquid beneath, This allows aquatic ecosystem to exist in low temperatures. Cohesion- Water molecules due to hydrogen bonds stick together, so water has a high cohesion. This explains why long columns of water can be suck up tall trees by transpiration without breaking. It also explains surface tension which allows small animals to walk on water,
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Cells are very technical and they need to constantly import raw materials to get rid of waste. Some of the exchanges of raw materials occur as a passive process but e.g. diffusion and osmosis, but not all substances can move freely. Cells must control the passage of substances through their membranes.
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Diffusion
 

All particles in liquids and gases are in constant motion The motion results in a net movement of all the particles in a high concentration into one of a lower concentration. In a mixture of gases, diffusion causes each gas to spread evenly throughout the space that the gases take up. The process above also happens when a soluble substance moves through a liquid until it is evenly dispersed.

If substances are to move up the concentration gradient they require energy. Some protein molecules act as molecular pumps. This allows active transport to take place. Animal and plant cells that specialise in absorption have plenty of mitochondria to provide the ATP for active transport.

A greater surface area means that there is more cell membrane across which diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion and active transport can take place. Large insoluble lipid molecules e.g. glucose and amino acids need more help. They get the help from intrinsic proteins within the phospholipid membrane. These protein molecules provide transmembrane channels through which small, water soluble molecules such as glucose can pass. This is known as facilitated diffusion.

ENZYMES
Biological processes are regulated by the action of enzymes. Enzymes as proteins that act as catalysts. The importance of enzymes is lowering activation energy so that the chemical reactions necessary to support life can proceed sufficiently quickly and within an acceptable temperature range. The mode of action of enzymes in terms of the formation of an enzyme - substrate 9 complex.

The way enzymes work can also be shown by considering the energy changes that take place during a chemical reaction. We shall consider a reaction where the product has a lower energy than the substrate, so the substrate turns into the product. Before it can change into the product, the substrate must overcome an energy barrier called the activation energy (EA).

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In a chemical reaction the larger the activation energy, the slower the reaction will be because only a few substrate molecules will by chance have sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy barrier. Most physiological reactions have large activation energies, so they simply don t happen in a useful 11 time scale.

There are about 40,000 enzymes in a human cell each controlling a different chemical reaction.

This is how a substrate fits into an enzyme in a reaction.

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Enzyme molecules have a complex tertiary structure. The substrate molecules of the enzyme must be precisely the right shape to fit it into part of the molecule called the active site. The substrate molecules are attracted to the active site and form an enzyme - substrate complex. This complex only exists for a fraction of a second, this is when the products of the reaction form. The activation energy is low in this reaction because it is controlled by enzymes and little energy is needed to bring the two substrate molecules together.

This is a diagram to show an enzyme in 13 action.

ENZYME ACTIVITY

The properties of enzymes related to their tertiary structure.The effects of change in temperature,pH,substrate concentration,and competitive and noncompetitive inhibition on the rate of enzyme action
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HOW ENZYMES WORK



Enzymes are ORGANIC CATALYSTS. A CATALYST is anything that speeds up a chemical reaction that is occurring slowly. How does a catalyst work? The explanation of what happens lies in the fact that most chemical reactions that RELEASE ENERGY (exothermic reactions) require an INPUT of some energy to get them going. The initial input of energy is called the ACTIVATION ENERGY
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Enzymes

 

 

An enzyme is a biological catalyst The pockets formed by tertiary and quaternary structure can hold specific substances (SUBSTRATES). These pockets are called ACTIVE SITES. When all the proper substrates are nestled in a particular enzyme's active sites, the enzyme can cause them to react quickly Once the reaction is complete, the enzyme releases the finished products and goes back to work on more substrate. 16

Properties of Enzymes relating to their tertiary structure.



The activity of enzymes is strongly affected by changes in pH and temperature. Each enzyme works best at a certain pH and temperature,its activity decreasing at values above and below that point. This is because of the importance of tertiary structure (i.e. shape) in enzyme function and forces, e.g., ionic interactions and hydrogen bonds, in determining that shape.

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The effects of change in temperature.

Temperature: enzymes work best at an optimum temperature. Below this, an increase in temperature provides more kinetic energy to the molecules involved. The numbers of collisions between enzyme and substrate will increase so the rate will too. Above the optimum temperature, and the enzymes are denatured. Bonds holding the structure together will be broken and the active site loses its shape and will no longer work
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The effect of change in pH.



pH: as with temperature, enzymes have an optimum pH. If the pH changes much from the optimum, the chemical nature of the amino acids can change. This may result in a change in the bonds and so the tertiary structure may break down. The active site will be disrupted and the enzyme will be denatured.

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The effect of change in concentration



Enzyme concentration: at low enzyme concentration there is great competition for the active sites and the rate of reaction is low. As the enzyme concentration increases, there are more active sites and the reaction can proceed at a faster rate. Eventually, increasing the enzyme concentration beyond a certain point has no effect because the substrate concentration becomes the limiting factor. Substrate concentration: at a low substrate concentration there are many active sites that are not occupied. This means that the reaction rate is low. When more substrate molecules are added, more enzyme-substrate complexes can be formed. As there are more active sites, and the rate of reaction increases. Eventually, increasing the substrate concentration yet further will have no effect. The active sites will be saturated so no more enzyme-substrate complexes can be formed.
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Competitive and non-competitive inhibition

Inhibitors slow down the rate of a reaction. Sometimes this is a necessary way of making sure that the reaction does not proceed too fast, at other times, it is undesirable

Reversible inhibitors:
Competitive reversible inhibitors: these molecules have a similar structure to the actual substrate and so will bind temporarily with the active site. The rate of reaction will be closer to the maximum when there is more real substrate.
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Competitive and non-competitive inhibition

Non-competitive reversible inhibitors: these molecules are not necessarily anything like the substrate in shape. They bind with the enzyme, but not at the active site. This binding change the shape of the enzymes active site though, so the reaction rate decreases. When the inhibitor leaves the enzyme return to its normal shape

Irreversible inhibitors:
These molecules bind permanently with the enzyme molecule and so effectively reduce the enzyme concentration.
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Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryote = without a nucleus Eukaryote = with a nucleus

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Eukaryotic cells

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Components
        

Cytoplasm Nucleus Mitochondria Chloroplast Ribosomes RER SER Golgi body Vacuoles
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Components cont.
      

Lysosomes Cytoskeleton Centriole Cilium and Flagellum Microvilli Cell membrane Cell Wall
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Prokaryotic cells

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Components
        

Cytoplasm Ribosomes Circular chromosome (DNA) Plasmid Cell Membrane Mesosome Cell Wall Capsule (or slime layer) Flagellum

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Summary of Differences!
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic cells

small cells (< 5 mm) always unicellular no nucleus or any membrane-bound organelles DNA is circular, without proteins ribosomes are small (70S) no cytoskeleton cell division is by binary fission reproduction is always asexual

larger cells (> 10 mm) often multicellular always have nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles DNA is linear and associated with proteins to form chromatin ribosomes are large (80S) always has a cytoskeleton cell division is by mitosis or meiosis reproduction is asexual or sexual
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The Ultrastructure Of A Typical Bacterial Cell

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The Bacterial Cell



This is a diagram of a typical bacterial cell

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The Bacterial Cell



This is what a bacterial cell looks like under an electron microscope.

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Next- The Organelle and their functions

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Bacterial Cell Wall

 

Made from the Glycoprotein murein. Its purpose is to provide the cell with strength and rigidity. It is permeable to solutes.

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Cell Membrane


This is made from phospholipids, proteins and carbohydrates, forming a fluid-mosaic. It surrounds the bacteria and is its most important organelle. It is controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
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Genetic material


The prokaryotic Bacterial cell has no nucleus. Its genetic material (DNA) is in the form of a circular chromosome which is in the cytoplasm

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Ribosomes


 

 

These are the smallest and most numerous of cell organelle. Bacteria have small (70s) ribosomes Their purpose is protein synthesis for the cells own use. They consist of protein and RNA. They are located free in the cytoplasm
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Flagellum
  

This is a rigid rotating tail. Its purpose is to propel the cell. Clockwise rotation is what propels the cell forward, anticlockwise rotation causes a chaotic spin.

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Plasmid
 

A plasmid is a small circle of DNA. Bacterial cells have a number of plasmids. Plasmids are used to exchange DNA between bacterial cells.

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Capsule


This is a kind of slime layer covering the outside of the cell wall. It is composed of a thick polysaccharide. It is used to stick cells together and as a food reserve. It is also there to protect the cell from desiccation, and from chemicals.
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OSMOSIS

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OSMOSIS IS THE NET MOVEMENT OF WATER MOLECULES ACROSS A PARTIALLY-PERMEABLE MEMBRANE. WATER MOLECULES MOVE RANDOMLY WITH A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF KINETIC ENERGY5
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Distilled water separated by a partiallypermeable membrane:

Water molecules are moving from one side of the membrane to the other but there is NO NET OSMOSIS
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If a substance is dissolved in water, the kinetic energy of the water molecules is LOWERED. This is because some water molecules aggregate on the surfaces of the other molecules

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For osmosis we talk about the potential water molecules have to move the OSMOTIC POTENTIAL. Distilled water has the highest potential (zero). When water has another substance dissolved in it, the water molecules have less potential to move. The osmotic potential is NEGATIVE.

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Water molecules always move from less negative to more negative water potential.

NET OSMOSIS

= LN MN

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The osmotic potential of a cell is known as its WATER POTENTIAL. For animal cells, the water potential is the osmotic potential of the cytoplasm.

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An animal cell with water potential 50kPa is placed in a solution

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Water potential of cytoplasm = -50kPa Osmotic potential of solution= -20kPa

If the osmotic potential of the solution is LESS NEGATIVE than the water potential of the cytoplasm(the solution is HYPOTONIC), net ENDOSMOSIS will occur, i.e. water will move into the cell from the solution. The result will be HAEMOLYSIS (the cell will burst)
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Water potential of cytoplasm= -50kPa Osmotic potential of solution = -80kPa

If the osmotic potential of the solution is MORE NEGATIVE than the water potential of the cytoplasm (the solution is HYPERTONIC), net EXOSMOSIS will occur. The result will be CRENATION (the cell will shrivel up)
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Water potential of cytoplasm= -50kPa Osmotic potential of solution= -50kPa

If the osmotic potential of the solution is THE SAME as the water potential of the cytoplasm (the solution is ISOTONIC), there will be NO NET OSMOSIS.
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In animal cells, the water potential is equal to the osmotic potential of the cytoplasm, but this is different in plant cells Plant cells have a cell wall, which exerts an inward pressure when the cell is turgid. This is known as the pressure potential. The water potential of an animal cell is equal to the osmotic potential of the cytoplasm plus the cell wall pressure:

W.P.= O.P. + P.P.

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A plant cell with water potential 50kPa is placed in a solution

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If the solution is HYPOTONIC, net ENDOSMOSIS occurs and the cell becomes fully TURGID.
Water potential of cell = 50kPa Osmotic potential of solution = -20kPa
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Water potential of cell = -50kPa Osmotic potential of solution = -80kPa

If the solution is HYPERTONIC, net EXOSMOSIS occurs and causes PLASMOLYSIS (the cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall. The cell wall stays intact).
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If the solution is ISOTONIC, NO NET OSMOSIS occurs. The cell is not plasmolysed, but it is not fully turgid either.
Water potential of cell = -50kPa Osmotic potential of solution = -50kPa
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body is made up of millions of cells. Mammals and plants are multicellular which means they have many cells. Each type of cell carries out a different function.
Your

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Differentiation


This is the development of a young, unspecialised cell into a mature specialised cell. This enables cells to carry out a particular function.

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 Cells

that are similar in shape and have a common function are often collected together and attached to each other.  They form a tissue.  A tissue is a collection of DIFFERENTIATED CELLS which are specialised for a particular function within the organism.
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An example of a tissue.
We know that a tissue is a group of cells with a similar structure.  So, if we look at skeletal muscle, this is a TISSUE made up from skeletal muscle cells.


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What is an ORGAN?
Different tissues are grouped together to make an ORGAN.  An organ contains several different tissues, all of which contribute to its overall function.  An example of an organ is the pancreas.  Organs work in groups called organ systems, eg, respiratory system.

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KEY WORDS!
   

MULTICELLULAR DIFFERENTIATION TISSUES ORGANS

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Biology
The development of internal gas exchange surfaces in larger organisms to maintain adequate rates of exchange. Mammals (alveoli, bronchioles, bronchi, trachea, lungs), including the ventilation system.

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To enable efficient gas exchange organisms have to be adapted. In this case the walls of the alveoli are made up of a layer of epithelial cells which are flattened. The capillaries are also made up from this way. This allows gases to diffuse through two cells only. To keep the alveoli moist water constantly diffuses through it.

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The respiratory system is the gas exchange organ in mammals. It contains the following:
    

Alveoli bronchioles bronchi Trachea lungs

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This can be seen on the following diagram:

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The concentration gradient across the respiratory system is maintained by: Blood flow on one side Air flow on the other side

This allows oxygen to diffuse down its own gradient from air to blood, while carbon dioxide can diffuse down its own concentration gradient from blood to air.

The flow of air into and out of the alveoli is known as Ventilation, and has two stages:
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Inspiration:
How it works 

Expiration:
How it works:


Diaphragm flattens and contracts Intercostal muscles contract making the ribs come up and out This increases the volume of the the thorax which in turn increases the lung and alveoli volume Pressure of air is decreased and so air flows IN to equalise this.

Diaphragm relaxes and curves upwards Ribs fall as intercostal muscles relax This decreases volume of thorax which in turn decreases lung and alveoli volume. This increases the pressure of air and so air flows OUT to equalise this.

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The following diagram helps explain this:

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Table to show what happens to the composition of air when it reaches the alveoli

Component N2 (plus inert gases) O2 CO2 H2O

Atmospheric Air (%)

Expired Air (%) 74.9 15.3 3.6 6.2 100.0%

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78.62 20.85 0.03 0.5 100.0%

The Gut Wall

Frehana Ali

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The Gut Wall

The gut wall is divided into 3 main layers:  An outer muscle layer, protected by a thin coating of fibres  A middle layer, called the submucosa  An inner layer, called the mucosa

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The structure of the gut wall is not the same all along the gut. The layers have special features in different regions that allow that part of the gut to carry out specific functions.
The different regions are: Oesophagus Stomach Duodenum Ileum
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Oesophagus
  

Main function - To push food to the stomach. Muscle layer Two thick layers force solid food along by peristalsis. Submucosa Elastic to allow expansion as food passes. Glands secrete mucus to lubricate passage of food. Mucosa Lining has several layers of flattened cells; outer layers can be rubbed off as food passes without causing damage to cells underneath. Folds allow expansion as food passes.
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Stomach


 

Main function Temporary food store. Muscular churning mixes and breaks up food. Hydrochloric acid produced kills micro organisms in food. Some digestion. Muscle layer Three layers run in different directions. As the layers contract and relax, this creates an effective churning action Submucosa Separates muscular and glandular layers. Mucosa Layer is thick with deep pits. These contain many glands that secrete mucus, enzyme and acid.
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Doudenum (first 25cm of small intestine)



 

Main function Neutralisation of stomach acid. Point of entry for Pancreatic juice and bile. Digestion and some absorption. Muscle layer Two layers for peristalsis. Submucosa Contains Brunners glands that secrete alkaline mucus. This helps to neutralise stomach acid. Mucosa Contains many glands that secrete mucus and enzymes. Folded into numerous projections called villi. These increase the surface area for absorption of digested food.
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Ileum (lower part of small intestine)

  

Main function Completion of digestion. Absorption of products of digestion. Muscle layer Two layers peristalsis. Submucosa Contains many blood and lymph vessels that take up absorbed food and transport them around the body. Mucosa Similar to Duodenum, but fewer glands. Patches of cells called Paneth cells, at base of glands, which help defend against bacterial infection. Some enzyme production.
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THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.

EPITHELIAL CELLS. ORGANS. TISSUES.

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Epithelial cells are highly specialized cells that line the small intestine. They help with the process of absorption of water, glucose molecules and mineral ions. The cells surface if highly folded, since this greatly increases the surface area of the cell. A greater surface area means that there is more cell membrane across where diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion and active 79 transport can take place.

AN INTESTINAL EPITHELIAL CELL.

The epithelial cells lining the small intestine have huge numbers of very thin, finger-like projections on their surface, called microvilli as seen on the picture opposite. The membranes of these microvilli contain the enzymes that break down disaccharides into monosaccharides.
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Maltase, for example, digests maltose into glucose, which passes immediately into the cytoplasm of the nearby epithelial cells.

INTESTINAL EPITHELIAL CELLS.

The panels depicts the bulk of this surface area expansion, showing villi, epithelial cells that cover the villi and the microvilli of the epithelial cells. Note in the middle panel, a light micrograph, that the microvilli are visible and look something like a brush. For this reason, the microvillus border of intestinal epithelial cells is referred to as the "brush border".

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INTESTINAL EPITHELIAL CELLS.

If examined closely, the lumenal surface of the small intestine appears similar to velvet due to it being covered by millions of small projections called villi which extend about 1 mm into the lumen. Villi are only the most obvious feature of the mucosa which houses a dynamic, selfrenewing population of epithelial cells that includes secretory cells, endocrine cells and the mature absorptive epithelial cells which take up nutrients from the lumen and transport them into blood, fulfilling the basic function of the digestive system.

A light microscope view of epithelial cells from the small intestine. x 1000.
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EPITHELIAL CELL DYNAMICS.

The mucosa of small intestinal mucosa is arranged into two fundamental structures:
Villi are projections into the lumen covered predominantly with mature, absorptive enterocytes, along with occasional mucus-secreting goblet cells. These cells live only for a few days, die and are shed into the lumen to become part of the ingesta to be digested and absorbed. That's right, we're all really cannibals. Crypts (of Lieberkuhn) are moat-like invaginations of the epithelium around the villi, and are lined largely with younger epithelial cells which are involved primarily in secretion. Toward the base of the crypts are stem cells, which continually divide and provide the source of all the epithelial cells in the crypts and on the villi.

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EPITHELIAL CELL DYNAMICS.

Coordinated contractions of smooth muscle participate in several ways to facilitate digestion and absorption in the small intestine: yfoodstuffs are mixed with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile salts from the biliary system ynutrient molecules in the lumen are constantly dispersed, allowing them to contact the epithelium where enzymatic digestion is completed and absorption occurs ychyme is moved down the digestive tube, making way for the next load and also eliminating undigestable, perhaps toxic substances In most animals, the small intestine cycles through two states: Following a meal, when the lumen of the small intestine contains chyme, two types of motility predominate: segmentation contractions chop, mix and roll the chyme and peristalsis slowly propels it toward the large intestine.

yThe interdigestive state is seen between meals, when the lumen is largely devoid of contents. During such times, so-called housekeeping contractions propagate from the stomach through the entire small intestine, sweeping it clear of debris. This complex pattern of motility is the cause of "growling".

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EPITHELIAL CELL DYNAMICS.

The tight junctions between cells are impermeable to large organic molecules from the diet (e.g. amino acids and glucose). Those types of molecules are transported exclusively by the transcellular route, and only because the plasma membrane of the absorptive enterocytes is equipped with transporter molecules that facilitate entry into and out of the cells.

An electron microscope view of epithelial cells from the small intestine. Magnification x 2000.
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EPITHELIAL CELL DYNAMICS.

It is important to recognize that the epithelium of the gut is not a monotonous sheet of functionally identical cells. As ingesta travels through the intestine, it is sequentially exposed to regions having epithelia with very different characteristics. This diversity in function results from differences in phenotype of the enterocytes - that is, the number and type of transporter molecules they express in their plasma membrane and the structure of the tight junctions they form. Even within a given segment there are major differences in the type of transport that occurs - for example, cells in the crypts transport very differently than cells on the tips of villi.
Within the intestine, there is a proximal to distal gradient in osmotic permiability. As you proceed down the tube, the effective pore size through the epithelium decreases. This means that the duodenum is much more "leaky" to water than the ileum and the ileum more leaky than the colon. Do not interpret this to mean that as you go down the tube, the ability to absorb water decreases! It means that water flows across the epithelium more "freely" in the proximal compared to distal gut because the effective pore size is larger. The distal intestine actually can absorb water better than the proximal gut. The observed differences in permiability to water across the epithelium is due almost entirely to differences in conductivity across the paracellular path - the takehome message is that tight junctions vary considerably in "tightness" along the length of the gut.

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ORGANS.

An organ is a group of physically-linked different tissues working together to perform a specific physiological function.

A picture of the small intestine.

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TISSUES.
A tissue is a group of similar cells performing a particular function.
Simple tissues are composed of one type of cell, while; Compound tissues are composed of more than one type of cell.
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The sites of production and action of amylases; endopeptidases; exopeptidases; lipase; maltase; and bile. Mechanisms for the absorption of food by the ileum, including roles of diffusion, facilitated diffusion and active transport.
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Amylase production sites

 

The human body produces amylase twice during the digestive process. The first time food comes into contact with it is in the mouth, where it is secreted by the salivary glands in saliva. Amylase is an enzyme, and so therefore a protein, and is easily denatured by the extreme pH of the stomach. Therefore it is produced again by the pancreas, and is added to the chyme in the duodenum.
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Endopeptidase production sites



 

Some endopeptidases with are secreted into the stomach from gastric glands in the mucosa layer e.g. pepsin, rennin. These have an optimum pH of about 1 or 2 They are denatured in the neutral pH of the chyme when it enters the duodenum. More endopeptidases are produced in the pancreas and join the chyme in the duodenum.
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Exopeptidase and maltase sites



  

Exopeptidases are found in the membranes of epithelial cells in the ileum. They are linked to proteins which allow protein entry into the cells. Maltase is also found in epithelial cell membranes They are linked to proteins which allow monosaccharide entry into the cell.
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Bile and lipase production sites

 

Bile is produced in the liver It is then stored in the gall bladder till it is needed. Lipase in produced in the pancreas. Both join the chyme in the duodenum.
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General enzyme actions.



Enzymes like amylase, endo- and exopeptidases, lipase and maltase are all catalysts in breakdown reactions. The thing that is to be reacted is called the substrate. The substrate joins to the active site in the enzyme The active site is specific to the substrate
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How an enzyme catalyses reactions (1)



The substrate is then distorted by the enzyme. This shapes the substrate into a transition state where the end product is more likely to be achieved E.g. the stretching of a bond that is broken in the end products.
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How an enzyme catalyses reactions (2)

  

The enzyme also lowers the activation energy of the reaction. This is the energy required for the reaction to take place If this is lowered the reaction takes place a lot faster

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Specific reactions catalysed

 

 

Amylase catalyses the break down of starch into maltose Endopeptidases and exopeptidases catalyse the break down of polypeptide chains Maltase catalyses the breakdown of maltose into glucose Lipase catalyses the breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol.

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Endopeptidases and Exopeptidases

      

Endopeptidases break down larger poly peptide chains into smaller ones. They do this by targeting particular amino acids. E.g pepsin breaks bonds between tryosine and phenylaline Exopeptidases break off amino acids from the ends of polypeptide chains. Carboxypeptidases work from the carboxyl acid end of an amino acid Aminopeptidases work from the amino end Dipeptidases break dipeptides in half.
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Bile
 

Bile is a yellow alkaline fluid It is used to neutralise the acidic chyme when it leaves the stomach. It is also used to emulsify fats into droplets called micelles. This can then be broken down using lipase.
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Absorption of sugars and amino acids in the ileum

   

Monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed into the epithelial cells in the ileum. This is done used active transport, which involves the use of ATP. This means they can be absorbed very quickly even against a concentration gradient. They are then allowed to diffuse into the capillaries of the villi which flow into the superior mesenteric artery and therefore round the body.
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The absorption of lipids in the ileum

 

  

The fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the epithelial cells. Here they are re-synthesised into lipids and are formed with proteins to form lipoproteins called chylomicrons. These diffuse into the lacteal. This is the lymph vessel in the villi They are carried through to join the vena cava artery and are carried through the body NB Lipids are not properly broken down until they are needed for respiration, in the liver or muscle cells. 101

Extracellular Digestion In Saprophytic Fungus

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Fungi are not consumers unlike animals. They are either saprophytes (decomposers) or pathogens. Therefore use saprophytic nutrition. This means they do not ingest food but use extra cellular digestion.
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Extracellular Digestion
 

This means that the fungi secrete digestive enzymes. These digestive enzymes are carbohydrases, proteases and lipases. These are secreted in to the material around them which enables them to absorb the soluble products such as amino acids and sugars. They are absorbed by facilitated diffusion and active transport

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Hyphae


Fungi is composed of thin threads called hyphae. These grow quickly penetrating dead materials such as leaves. When mould grows on bread it looks like cotton wool but is in fact a mass of hyphae.

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Hyphae


This mass of hyphae is also known as a fungi mycelium. The hyphae gives the fungi a large surface area to volume ratio.

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Biochemical Tests

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Biochemical Tests
Biochemical tests identify the main biologically important chemical compounds. For each test take a small amount of the substance to test, shake it in water in a test tube.(The substance may need grinding with a pestle and mortar, to break up the cells and release the cell contents.) Many of these compounds are insoluble, but the tests work just as well in a fine suspension.

Benedicts Test For Reducing Sugars

All monosaccharides and most disaccharide's will reduce copper (II) sulphate, producing a precipitate of copper (I) oxide on heating, so they are called reducing sugars. Benedicts reagent is an aqueous solution of copper (II) sulphate, sodium carbonate and sodium citrate. Grind up sample

To approx. 2cm3 of test solution add equal quantity of Benedicts reagent. Shake, and heat for a few minutes at 95rC in a water bath A precipitate indicates reducing sugars Original Pale Blue = no reducing sugar Brown/Red = reducing sugar
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Benedicts Test For NonReducing Sugars

Non-Reducing sugars do not reduce copper sulphate. However, if it is first hydrolysed to its constituent monosaccharides, it will then give a positive Benedicts Test. First test a sample for reducing sugars, to see if there are any present before hydrolysis. Then using a separate sample, Boil the test solution with dilute hydrochloric acid for a few minutes to hydrolyse the glycosidic bond. Neutralise, by adding small amounts of solid sodium hydrogen carbonate until it stops fizzing. Perform the Benedicts test A positive result indicates the presence of simple nonreducing sugar.
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Iodine Test For Starch



To approximately 2cm of the test solution add 2 drops of iodine/potassium iodide solution. A blue/black colour indicates the presence of starch. Starch is only slightly soluble in water, but the test works well in a suspension or as a solid.

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Emulsion Test For Lipids

Lipids do not dissolve in water, but do dissolve in ethanol. This characteristic is used in the emulsion test. Grind up sample Shake some test sample with about 4cm3 of ethanol. Decant the liquid into a test tube of water leaving any undissolved substances between. If there are lipids dissolved in the ethanol, they will precipitate in the water, forming a cloudy white emulsion.

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Biuret Test For Protein



To about 2cm3 of test solution add an equal volume of biuret solution, down the side of the test tube. A blue ring forms at the surface of the solution, which disappears on shaking, and the solution turns lilac-purple, indicating protein. The colour change is due to a complex between nitrogen atoms in a peptide chain and copper (II) ions, so this is really a test for peptide bonds.

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Differential Centrifugation


This is the most common method of fractionating cells Fractionation is the separation of the different organelles within the cell

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Method:


1. Cut tissue in an icecold isotonic buffer. It is cold to stop enzyme reactions, isotonic to stop osmosis and a buffer to stop pH changes. 2. Grind tissue in a blender to break open cells. Filter to remove insoluble tissue
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4. Centrifuge filtrate at low speeds ( 1000 X g for 10mins ) This pellets the nuclei as this is the densest organelle

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5. Centrifuge at medium speeds ( 10 000 x g for 30 mins ) This pellets mitchondria which are the second densest organelle
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6. Centrifuge at high speeds ( 100 000 x g for 30 mins) This pellets ER, golgi apparatus and other membrane fragments
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7 Centrifuge at very high speeds ( 300 000 x g for 3hrs) This pellets ribosomes

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Investigating Cell Function

Centrifugation allows us to look at each organelle within the cell  We can look at the individual organelles and study them in detail  This helps to determine each organelles function within the cell
 Differential
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The Electron Microscope



Microscopes allow us to see living organisms which are too small to be seen by the naked eye The electron microscope uses beams of electrons rather than light to illuminate the specimen A beam of electrons has an effective wavelength of less than 1 nm so it can be used to resolve small sub-cellular ultra-structure The development of the electron microscope allowed biologists to view the organelles within a cell for the first time
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There are two types of electron microscope

 

The transmission microscope. (TEM) Works like a light microscope, it transmits a beam of electrons through a thin specimen Then focussing the electrons to form an image on a screen This is the most common form of electron microscope and gives good resolution.

The scanning electron microscope (SEM) This scans a fine beam of electron onto specimen and collects electrons scattered by surface This has poor resolution but gives good 3-D images
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Disadvantages of the Electron Microscope



The specimens must be fixed in plastic and viewed in a vacuum and so they must be dead Sometimes specimens can be damaged by the electron beam and must be stained with an electron-dense electronchemical
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