Question!

Among the digestive parts, which is known as the food inspector?

Stomach Liver Gallbladder Pancreas

FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Take in food or water that are taken up by the body. Breakdown the food that are taken up from big molecules to smaller one.

 Absorbs digested molecules then absorb by the system for the body Provide nutrients by the process of digestion and absorption for the body Eliminate wastes like undigested material in the form of feces.

Anatomy and Histology of the Digestive System

LAYERS OR TUNICS
1. Mucosa- consist of mucous epithelium, a loose connective tissue, lamina propria and smooth muscle the muscularis mucosa. Found in mouth, esophagus, & anus.

2. submucosa- outside the mucosa. Loose connective tissue with nerves(plexuses), blood vessels and small glands.

GLANDS

Accessory gland Salivary gland

3. muscularis- inner part consist of circular smooth muscle, longitudinal smooth muscle and enteric plexus. 4. Serosa or adventitia- covered with peritoneum(not all), which is a smooth epithelial layer underlying a connective tissue.

PERITONEUM
Abdominal cavity and its organ are covered with serous membranes. The membrane that covers the organ is the visceral peritoneum and the membrane that lines the wall of the cavity is the parietal peritoneum.

MESENTERIES
It is a connective tissue that held in place the organs in the abdominal cavity. consist of serous membrane and loose connective tissue

 Lesser omentum is a mesentery connection the lesser curvature of the stomach to the liver and diaphragm. Greater omentum is a mesentery connecting the greater curvature of the stomach to the transverse colon and posterior body wall.

 Omental bursa, a cavity, created by the double fold of mesentery from the stomach to the colon. Mesentery proper is a mesentery that attaches small intestine to posterior abdominal wall

ORAL CAVITY

Facts about it:

The first part of the digestive tract. Mainly bounded by lips and cheeks and contains the teeth and tongue. Lips is covered by keratinized stratified epithelium at the margin of it. The blood vessels give the lips its reddish pink appearance.

 Buccinator muscles flatten the cheeks against the teeth. Tongue, a large muscular organ that occupies most of oral cavity. It helps moving the food and holds in place the food during mastication. It also is a sensory organ for taste

 It is attach in the posterior part of oral cavity while the anterior is moving free. Frenulum is the anterior attachment to the floor of the mouth.

MASTICATION
oral cavity are important in the mastication process or chewing. Mastication help manipulate or keep the food in mouth and hold in place while the teeth crush or tear it.

 It start with a mechanical digestion in which large food particles are broken down into smaller ones. Cheeks also help in speech process.

TEETH

What to know about teeth:

There are 32 teeth in normal adult. 16 in mandible part and 16 in the maxillae. Divided into quadrants. Right upper, left upper, right lower and left lower.

 Each quadrant consist of one central and lateral incisor; one canine; first and second premolars; and first, second, and third molars. Wisdom teeth is the third molar teeth.

 Most adults have permanent teeth. And most of it are replaceable of the 20 primary or deciduous teeth. Tooth consist of crown, cusps, neck, and a root.

 Pulp cavity is the center of it and surrounded by dentin. And dentin is covered by hard enamel. Cementum then helps the tooth anchor in the jaw. Alveoli rooted the teeth. And alveolar process are covered with gingiva or gums. The teeth are held by periodontal ligaments.

TOOTH ANATOMY

Some Tooth disease

Dental caries or tooth decay is the result of enamel breakdown by acids produce by bacteria. Periodontal disease is the inflammation of the periodontal ligaments, gingiva, and alveolar bone.

Palatine and tonsils

 Palate is the roof of the oral cavity consist of hard and soft palate. it separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity. Uvula is the posterior extension of the soft palate. Tonsils are located in the lateral posterior walls of the oral cavity and helps fight against ingested pathogens.

Salivary glands
3 pairs: *parotid *submandibular *sublingual

They all produce saliva with mixture of serous and mucous fluids. Parotid gland- serous gland just anterior to each ear. Submandibular glands- produce more serous than mucous. Sublingual glands- produce primarily mucous secretions.

Oral Cavity Secretions

Saliva is secreted at the rate of approximately 1 liter per day. It contain with digestive enzyme called salivary amylase which breaks the covalent bond between glucose in starch and other polysaccharides. Maltose and isomaltose enhance the sweet taste of food.

 Cellulose, a polysaccharide, is hard to be digested since it is contain in plant cell and we lack enzymes for breaking it but cooking and thorough chewing disrupt the cellulose covering. Saliva contains Iysozyme that prevents bacterial infection in the mouth.

 Mucin a proteoglycan mucous secreted of the submandibular and sublingual gland give a lubricating quality. Salivary gland is regulated by autonomic nervous system.

Pharynx

 Consist of nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. that acts as a passageway for food on its way to the stomach and for air en route to the lungs.

Esophagus

 Is a muscular tube lined with moist stratified squamous epithelium, that connects the pharynx to the stomach. Esophageal sphincters or cardiac sphincter regulates the movement of food in and out.

Deglutition
What are the 3 phases: *voluntary phase *pharyngeal phase *esophageal phase

 At voluntary phase, a bolus(a mass of food), is formed in the mouth then it is pushed by the tongue against the hard palate forcing it to the posterior part of the mouth and into the oropharynx.

 In pharyngeal phase, the soft palate elevates which closes the passage between nasopharynx and oropharynx.

The 3 pharyngeal constrictor then contracts to force food through the pharynx. As the food passes the epiglottis is tipped posteriorly to prevent passing from passing into the larynx.

 esophageal phase is responsible for moving food from the pharynx to the stomach. Peristaltic wave then occur.

1. A wave of circular smooth relaxation moves ahead of the bolus, allowing the digestive tract to expand. 2. A wave of contraction of the circular smooth muscles behind the bolus propels it through the digestive tract.

Stomach

What is a Stomach?
Is an enlarged segment of the digestive tract in the left superior part of the abdomen. It has a cardiac opening, in cardiac region, from the esophagus and a pyloric opening, in pyloric region surrounded with pyloric sphincter, into the duodenum.

 Fundus is the superior part, body is the largest part and which it turns to the right forming greater curvature on the left and lesser curvature on the right. Its wall is consist of muscle layers: longitudinal, circular, and oblique that produce churning action.

 Rugae is a large fold that allow the mucosa and submucosa to stretch. The stomach is lined with simple columnar epithelium. It is divided into 5 groups: surface mucous cells, mucous neck cell, parietal cells, endocrine cells, and chief cells

 surface mucous cells - protects the stomach lining mucous neck cell - produce mucus parietal cells - produce HCl and intrinsic factor

 endocrine cells - produce regulatory hormones chief cells - produce pepsinogen, from enzyme pepsin.

Secretion of the stomach

mucus protects the stomach lining HCl acid kills microorganism and activates pepsin Pepsin starts protein digestion

 Intrinsic factor aid in vitamin b12 absorption Gastrin helps regulate stomach secretion and movement.

Regulation of stomach secretion

Approximately 2 L of gastric secretion is produce each day. Nervous and hormonal mechanism regulates gastric secretion. Hormones produced by the stomach and intestine helps regulate stomach secretions.

3 phases in the stomach digestion:

Cephalic phase Gastric phase Intestinal phase

Cephalic phase
During cephalic phase the stomach secretion are initiated by the sight, smell, taste, or thought of food.

Gastric phase
During the gastric phase, partially digested proteins or distention of the stomach also promotes secretion

Intestinal phase
During intestinal phase, acidic chyme in the duodenum stimulates neuronal reflexes and the secretion of hormones that induce and then inhibit gastric secretion.

Movement in the stomach

Movement in stomach
1.Mixing waves mix the stomach contents with the stomach secretions to form chyme. 2.Peristaltic waves move the chyme into the duodenum

Small Intestine

Anatomy of small intestine

is the part of the gastrointestinal tract following the stomach and followed by the large intestine, and is where much of the digestion and absorption of food takes place, it is 6 meters long.

What are the parts?

There are 3 parts: *duodenum- about 25 cm long *jejunum- about 2.5 m long *ileum- about 3.5 m long

 It has 600 fold: circular folds, villi, and microvilli. The mucosa of the small intestine is simple columnar epithelium with four major types: absorptive cell, goblet cell, granular cells, and endocrine cell

 Absorptive cell produce digestive enzyme Goblet cell produce protective mucus Granular cell protect intestine from bacteria Endocrine cell produce regulatory hormone

Duodenum, Jejunum & Ileum

Duodenum
Duodenum nearly completes a 180degree arc as it curves within the abdominal cavity. Common bile duct and pancreatic duct empty into it. Submucosa of it contains duodenal glands which open into the base of intestinal gland.

Jejunum
Jejunum- is the next portion of the small intestine, and it has a lining which is specialized in the absorption of carbohydrates and proteins.

Ileum
Ileum- The function of the ileum is mainly to absorb vitamin B12 and bile salts and whatever products of digestion that were not absorbed by the jejunum.

 Lymph nodules are common in the digestive tract. Peyers patches are numerous in ileum. The junction between ileum and large intestine is the ileocecal junction. It has ileocecal sphincter and ileocecal valve which allows material to move with the flow.

Secretions of the small intestine

Contains mucus, ions and water. Intestinal mucosa are mostly secrets the secretion entering the small intestine. As well as the liver and pancreas. Epithelial cell have enzymes that helps in the final step of digestion.

 Intestinal secretions lubricate and protect intestinal wall from acidic chyme and digestive enzyme. Peptidase break the peptide bonds in protein to form amino acids.

 Disaccharidase break down disaccharides into monosaccharides. Intestinal epithelium then absorbs the amino acid and monosaccharides.

Segmental contraction of small intestine

The secretion process:

1. A secretion introduced into the digestive tract 2. Segments alternate between contraction and relaxation 3. Materials are spread out in both directions 4. The secretion is spread out and become more diffuse

Liver and Pancreas

Liver and Pancreas

Anatomy of the liver Functions of the liver Anatomy of the pancreas Functions of the pancreas

Liver

Anatomy of the liver

It is consist of 4 lobes. it receives blood from the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein. Portal triads contain hepatic artery, hepatic vein, and hepatic duct.

 Hepatic artery brings oxygen-rich blood to the liver which supplies liver cells with oxygen Hepatic portal vein carries oxygen-poor blood but rich in absorbed nutrients and other substances from digestive tract to liver

Liver cells
Process nutrients and detoxify harmful substances from the blood Carry out various functions of the liver Hepatic Veins where blood exits the liver and empty into the inferior vena cava

 Hepatic cords called hepatocytes are located in between and center of each lobule. Hepatic sinusoids separate the hepatic cord. Joining the common bile duct and pancreatic duct they empty the duodenum.

 Bile produce by hepatocytes, leaves the liver through hepatic duct system. The cystic duct joins the common hepatic duct to form common bile duct. Gall bladder is a small sac that stores and concentrates bile. Stimulated by cholecystokinin

Functions of the liver

Digestion Excretion Nutrient storage Nutrient conversion Detoxification of harmful chemicals Synthesis of new molecules

Digestion
Bile Secreted by liver Does not contain digestive enzyme Neutralizes stomach acid Emulsifies fats (facilitates in fat digestion) Bile salts

Excretion
Bile contains excretory products: Cholesterol Fats Bile pigments (eg. Bilirubin) Bilirubin A bile pigment that results from the breakdown of hemoglobin

Nutrient storage
Sugar from blood is removed by liver cells and is stored in the form of glycogen Other storage: Fat - Copper Vitamins - Iron Storage is short term

Nutrient conversion
Liver cells convert: Ingested fats + choline and phosphorus phospholipids (cell membrane) Amino acid lipids/glucose Vitamin D calcitriol (active form)

Detoxification of harmful chemicals

Ammonia Toxic by-product of amino acid metabolism Removed from circulation and converted into urea which is then excreted in the urine

Synthesis of new molecules

New compounds, blood proteins produced by liver: Albumins Fibrinogen

 Globulins Clotting factors I (fibrinogen), II (Prothrombin), III, IV, V, VI, VII

Your liver
One of the jobs of the liver is to inspect the nutrients that are going to go to our bloodstream. Its job is to supply detoxification by getting rid of the impurities.

Pancreas

Anatomy of pancreas
Located in retroperitoneal, posterior to the stomach in the inferior part of the left quadrant. an endocrine gland that produce hormone and an exocrine gland controls blood nutrient levels and produce bicarbonate ions and digestive enzymes.

 It has a head and a tail Its tail touches the spleen Composed of endocrine and exocrine tissues

Endocrine part
Consists of pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) Islet cells Hormones: insulin and glucagon Control blood levels of nutrients (e.g. glucose and amino acids)

Exocrine part
Compound acinar gland Acini Digestive enzymes Clusters of acini small ducts larger ducts pancreatic duct Pancreatic duct joins common bile duct and empties into the duodenum

Functions of the pancreas

Exocrine secretions HCO3 Neutralize acidic chyme Pancreatic enzymes Digestion of all major classes of foods

 Major proteolytic enzymes Trypsin Chymotrypsin carboxypeptidase Pancreatic amylase Continues polysaccharide digestion

 Other pancreatic enzymes Lipases (lipid-digesting enzymes) Nucleases Reduce DNA and RNA

Exocrine secretory activity of pancreas

Controlled by hormonal and neural mechanisms Secretin Stimulus: acidic chyme in the duodenum

 Cholecystokinin Stimulates pancreas to release enzyme-rich solution Stimulus: fatty and amino acids in the duodenum

 Parasympathetic stimulation (through vagus nerve) Stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes Sympathetic action potentials Inhibit pancreatic secretion

Large Intestine Anatomy Functions

Anatomy of the Large Intestine

Consists of: Cecum Colon Rectum Anal canal

Cecum
The proximal end of the large intestine Where the large and small intestines meet Located in the right lower quadrant of the abdomen A sac with appendix attached

Colon
Undergo mass movements every 8-12 hours Defecation reflex Initiated by the distended rectal wall Local and parasympathetic reflexes

Colon
Consists of four parts: Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon Sigmoid colon

 Ascending colon Extends superiorly from the cecum to the right colic flexure, near the liver Transverse colon Extends from the right colic flexure to the left colic flexure, near the spleen, where colon turns inferiorly

 Descending colon Extends from the left colic flexure to the pelvis Sigmoid colon Extends medially and inferiorly into the pelvic cavity and end at the rectum

Rectum
Begins at the termination of the sigmoid colon and ends at the anal canal Muscular tunic is relatively thick

Anal canal
Begins at the inferior end of the rectum and ends at the anus Smooth muscle layer is thicker than rectum Forms the internal anal sphincter at superior end of the anal canal

 External anal sphincter inferior end Formed by skeletal muscle

Functions of the Large Intestine

Conversion of chyme to feces: Absorption of water and salts Secretion of mucus Extensive action of microorganisms

 Defecation Process of storing feces until they are eliminated in the colon Microorganisms Constitute 30% of dry weight of feces

Digestion, absorption and transport

Digestion
Digestion breakdown of food into smaller molecules enough to be absorbed by the system Mechanical digestion breaks large food particles into smaller ones

 Chemical digestion breaking of covalent chemical bonds by digestive enzymes

Absorption
Begins in the stomach Mostly occurs in the duodenum and jejunum Some in the ileum

Transport
Requires carrier molecules Includes: Facilitated diffusion Cotransport (require energy) Active transport (require energy)

Carbohydrates
Consist primarily of starches, cellulose, sucrose, and small amounts of fructose and lactose Salivary amylase in the mouth

Salivary amylase mouth

Stomach Duodenum Pancreatic amylase

Glucose by liver cells

Disaccharides

Monosaccharides

Lipids
Include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and fatsoluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) Saturated fats solid at room temp. Meat, dairy products, eggs, nuts, coconut oil, palm oil

 Polyunsaturated fats liquid at room temp. Fish and most plant oils

Lipid digestion
Emulsification bile salts lipases Fatty acids and monoglycerides

micelles

Triglycerides

Lacteals

Adipose tissue

Proteins
Chains of amino acids Found in most animal and plant products Pepsin Enzyme secreted by stomach Breaks down proteins

pepsin

Proteins

Polypeptides

Tripeptides / single amino acids

Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase

Small intestine

Intestinal epithelial cells

Amino acids

Liver

Water and Minerals

Movement direction: osmotic gradients When chyme is diluted, water moves out of the intestine into the blood If chyme is concentrated and contains little water, water moves into the lumen of the small intestine

Disorders of the digestive tract

Stomach vomiting

 Ulcers Peptic ulcers Helicobacter pylori

Duodenal ulcer Stomach: gastric ulcer

 Liver Cirrhosis Hepatitis Viral hepatitis Hepatitis A, B, C

 Intestine IBD Crohns disease Ulcerative colitis IBS Malabsorption syndrome (srue)

 Infections of the digestive tract Staphylococcal food poisoning Staphylococcus aureus Salmonellosis Salmonella bacteria Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi

Cholera Vibrio cholerae Giardiasis Giardia lamblia

Intestinal parasites Tapeworms Pinworms Hookworms (ancylostoma) Ascariasis Ascaris lumbricoides Constipation Diarrhea Dysentery

Question!
Among the digestive parts, which is known as the food inspector?
Stomach Liver Gallbladder Pancreas

Guessed right?

Thank You for your cooperation!