DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Two Types of Systems

 Incomplete digestive
system

One-way, saclike
digestive cavity
 Complete digestive
system

A tube with an
opening at each end
 The Digestive Tract
 The human digestive tract is a tube with
specialized regions and organs between
the mouth and the anus.
 Food is ingested, mechanically processed,
and chemically digested to small
molecules that are absorbed; indigestible
remains are eliminated.
 Parts of the digestive tract produce
digestive enzymes.
Digestive system
 Digestive System Tasks
 Break up, mix, and move food material
 Secrete enzymes into tube where digestion
occurs
 Digest (breaks down) food particles into
smaller molecules
 Absorb nutrients and fluids
 Eliminate wastes and residues
 Major Components

 Mouth (oral cavity)

 Pharynx (throat)
 Esophagus
 Gut
 Stomach

 Small intestine

 Large intestine

 Rectum

 Anus
 Three Accessory Organs
 The pancreas, liver, and gallbladder are
accessory organs of digestion; their
secretions assist digestion.
 Accessory organs are not part of the
digestive tube but produce enzymes and
other substances that assist digestion.
 These three accessory organs send
secretions to the duodenum via ducts.
 Accessory Organs

 Pancreas
 Secretes digestive enzymes

 Liver
 Secretes bile

 Gallbladder
 Stores and concentrates bile

 Salivary glands

Secrete saliva
 The Pancreas
 The pancreas secretes:
• enzymes that break down all major food
molecules
• sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) to neutralize
acid in chyme.
• Insulin which is a hormonal control over
glucose metabolism.
 The Liver
 The liver produces bile, which is stored in
the gallbladder.
 Bile emulsifies fats; it is a yellowish-green
substance containing bilirubin from
hemoglobin breakdown and bile salts
derived from cholesterol.
 The liver acts as gatekeeper to the blood
and receives blood from the small
intestine by way of the hepatic portal vein.
 The functions of the liver are many:
 detoxifies blood,
 stores iron and vitamins,
 makes plasma proteins,

stores glucose as glycogen,
 produces urea from amino acids,
 removes bilirubin after dismantling blood cells,
and
 regulates blood cholesterol level when
producing bile salts.
 The Gallbladder
 The gallbladder is a pear-shaped
muscular organ that stores bile until it is
sent to the duodenum.
 Water is reabsorbed in the gallbladder
making the bile thick and mucus-like.
 Bile enters the duodenum via the common
bile duct.
-----------------------------------------------------------
 Gallstones are crystals of cholesterol.
 Conditions for Digestion
 For digestion to occur:
 the correct enzyme,
 optimum pH,
 optimum temperature, and

the correct substrate must be present.
 Exact conditions can be determined during
laboratory experiments.
 Most digestive enzymes, aside from
pepsin, require a basic pH.
So how exactly does our
digestive system work?
 Human Digestive System

 A complete system with many

specialized organs
 About 6.5 to 8 meters long if extended
 Lined with mucus-secreting epithelium
 Movement is one way, from mouth
to anus
Adult mouth
 The Teeth
 Twenty deciduous (baby) teeth are
replaced by 32 adult teeth.
 Each tooth has a crown and a root.
 The crown has a layer of enamel, dentin,
and an inner pulp with nerves and blood
vessels that extend into the root.
 The tongue mixes the chewed food with
saliva and then forms the mixture into a
mass called a bolus in preparation for
swallowing.
 Saliva
 Produced by salivary glands at back of
mouth and under tongue
 Saliva includes
 Salivary amylase (enzyme)

 Bicarbonate (buffer)


Mucins (bind food into bolus)

Water
 Swallowing
 Complex reflex
 Tongue forces food into pharynx
 Epiglottis and vocal cords close off
trachea; breathing temporarily ceases
 Food moves into esophagus, then
through esophageal sphincter into
stomach
Swallowing
 The Pharynx
 The air passage and food passage cross
in the pharynx because the trachea is
ventral to the esophagus.
 Swallowing occurs in the pharynx and is a
reflex action.
 During swallowing, the air passage is
usually blocked off by the soft palate and
uvula, and the trachea moves under the
epiglottis to cover the glottis opening to
the windpipe.
 The Esophagus
 The esophagus is a muscular tube that
conducts food through the thoracic cavity
and diaphragm into the stomach.
 Peristalsis begins in the esophagus; this
collapsed tube moves the bolus of food
downward after swallowing occurs.
 Heartburn is a burning pain when acidic
stomach contents enter the esophagus.
 No chemical digestion occurs in the
esophagus.
 The entrance of the esophagus to the
stomach is marked by a constriction,
called a sphincter; the sphincter must
relax in order for food to enter the
stomach.
 The sphincter prevents food from backing
up into the esophagus.
 The Stomach
 The stomach expands to store food.
 Food in the stomach is churned, mixing
the food with gastric juices containing
hydrochloric acid and pepsin for the
digestion of protein to peptides.
 Alcohol, but not food, is absorbed here.
 In 2–6 hours, the soupy chyme leaves the
stomach.
 Ulcers are usually caused by a bacterial
infection.
 Structure of the Stomach
 J-shaped organ lies
below the diaphragm sphincters
serosa
 Sphincters at both ends muscle
 Outer serosa covers
smooth muscle layers
 Inner layer of glandular
mucosa
epithelium faces lumen
 Stomach Secretions
 Secreted into lumen (gastric fluid)
 Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
 Mucus (protective)


Pepsinogen (inactive form of a protein-
digesting enzyme)
 Stomach cells also secrete the hormone
gastrin into the bloodstream
 Small Intestine
 Three regions
 Duodenum
 Jejunum
 Ilium
 Receives chyme from stomach
 Receives secretions from liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas
 The Small Intestine
 The small intestine, averaging about 6
meters in length ( ~20 feet), is small in
diameter.
 The first 25 cm is the duodenum that
receives bile from the gallbladder and
pancreatic juice containing pancreatic
lipase and trypsin for digestion of protein
to peptides, as well as lipase for digestion
of fat to glycerol and fatty acids.
 Pancreatic juice contains NaHCO3
(sodium bicarb.) that is basic and neutralizes the
acidic chyme.
 Enzymes that finish the process of
digestion are produced by the intestinal
wall.
 Walls of the small intestine have finger-like
projections called villi where nutrient
molecules are absorbed into the
cardiovascular and lymphatic systems.
 Villi have microvilli that increase the
surface area available for absorption.
 Walls of Small Intestine
 Projections into the
intestinal lumen
increase the surface
area available for
absorption

one villus
Anatomy of the small intestine
 Absorption of Nutrients
 Passage of molecules into internal
environment
 Occurs mainly in jejunum and ileum of
small intestine
 Segmentation mixes the lumen contents
against wall and enhances absorption
Junction of the small intestine and
the large intestine
 Large Intestine (Colon)
 Concentrates and stores feces
 Sodium ions are actively
transported out of lumen and
water follows
 Lining secretes mucus and
bicarbonate
 The Large Intestine
 The large intestine consists of the cecum,
colon, rectum and anal canal.
 The large intestine does not produce
digestive enzymes but does absorb water,
salts, and some vitamins.
 The colon includes the ascending colon,
the transverse colon, the descending
colon, and the sigmoid colon.
 The appendix is an extension of the
cecum.
 Indigestible material is stored in the
rectum until the anus allows
defecation.
 Anaerobic bacteria in the feces break
down indigestible material and
produce some vitamins.
 Intestinal Problems
a.k.a.
(“ A pain in the butt”)
 Polyps are small growths arising from the
epithelial lining that may be benign or
cancerous.
 Diarrhea and constipation are two
common complaints of the large intestine.
 Causes of diarrhea include infection of the
lower tract and nervous stimulation, both
moving feces more rapidly than normal, but
also causing dehydration if prolonged.
 Water and fiber in the diet can prevent
constipation where the feces become too
dry and hard.
 Hemorrhoids are enlarged and inflamed
blood vessels at the anus; this condition is
associated with chronic constipation.
 Regular elimination reduces the time the
colon wall is exposed to cancer-promoting
agents in the feces and may help prevent
cancer.
Dietary Concerns
 Obesity
 Excess of fat in adipose tissues
 Levels have been rising since the 1980s
 1 in 4 Americans is now obese
 Possible reasons for the rise
 Increased portion sizes

Increased intake of refined carbohydrates
(may also be implicated in rising rates
of diabetes)
 Food Pyramid
added fats and
simple sugars

milk, yogurt, legume, nut, poultry,

cheese group fish, meat group

fruit group vegetable group

bread, cereal, rice,

pasta group
 Dietary Essentials

 Vitamins

Essential organic substances
 Minerals
 Essential inorganic substances
 Vitamins
Fat soluble
 Excess Fat insoluble
 B vitamins
accumulates in
tissue  Pantothenic acid
 Vitamins A, D, E,  Folate
K  Biotin
 Vitamin C
 Major Minerals

Calcium Magnesium
Chloride Phosphorus
Copper Potassium
Fluorine Sodium
Iodine Sulfur
Iron Zinc
 Body-Mass Index

 An indicator of obesity-related health risk

 BMI = Weight (lbs) X 700
-----------------------------
Height (inches)2

 BMI greater than or equal to 27 indicates

health risk
 Maintaining Weight
 Caloric input must equal caloric use
 Calories burned depends upon

Activity level
 Age

 Height and build