DATA COMMUNICAT ION Introduction

Components Protocols Standards Topology

What is data communication?

Exchange of data in the form of 0s and 1 between two devices via some form of transmission medium.

Considered local if the communicating devices are in the same building/similarly restricted geographical area.

Considered remote if devices are far apart.

Effectiveness depends on: 1. Delivery correct destination 2. Accuracy

What is Computer Network ?

A computer network allows sharing of resources and information among devices connected to the network.

The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) funded the design of the "Advanced Research Projects Agency Network" (ARPANET) for the United States Department of Defense.

It was the first operational computer network in the world.

Network is categorized as PAN (within the personal network like cells, PDAs, pagers etc. of one person), LAN (within building/plant/campus), MAN (covering an area size of a city) and WAN (Spanning states/countries/whole world), INTERNET (network of networks).

COMPONENTS
Message Info./data to be communicated. Eg. Text, Numbers, Pictures, Sound, Video, or combination of these

Sender/Transmitter

Receiver

Medium Path

Protocol Set of rules that governs data communication. Agreement between communicating devices.

D a ta C o m m u n ica tio n S y ste m C o m p o n e n ts

 Data transmission occurs between transmitter and receiver over some transmission medium.

Transmission media is classified as: 1.guided - the waves are guided along a physical path; examples of guided media are twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber. 2.unguided - provide a means for transmitting electromagnetic waves but do not guide them; eg. propagation through air, vacuum, and sea water.

3.
In both cases, communication is in the form

Network Criteria

Performance
Depends on: 1.Number of users In peak load periods performance decreases, but network responding to load is measure of performance. 2.Type of transmission medium Faster medium like fibre optics cabling. 3.Hardware High speed computer with large storage, 4.Software Well defined softwares at sender, receiver and intermediate

Reliability
1.Frequency of failure 2. 3.Recovery time of a network after failure 4. 5.Catastrophe - fire, earthquake, theft.

Security
Unauthorized Access Protection is needed at different levels like identification codes and passwords at lowest levels to encryption techniques at higher level. Viruses Illicitly introduced code that damages the system.

PROTOCOLS
Protocol defines: 1.What is to be communicated 2.How is it to be communicated 3.When is to be communicated 4. Key elements of protocols are Syntax, Semantics and Timing.

 Syntax Structure/format of data meaning order in which they are presented. Example, a simple protocol expect first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.

Semantics - refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation? Example, an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?

Timing - refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.

STANDARDS
Standards are essential in: 1.creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for equipment manufacturers and in 2.guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and telecommunications technology and processes.

Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in

Categories of Data communication standards

 De facto - by fact. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto standards. They are established originally by manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of a new product or technology.

De jure - by law or by regulation. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are de jure

Standards Creation Committees

International Organization for Standardization (ISO). International Telecommunication UnionTelecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T). American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Electronic Industries Association (EIA). Telcordia

Line Configuration
Refers to the way two or more communication devices attach to a link. Two configurations: 1.Point to point 2.Multipoint

Point to Point
Provides dedicated link between two devices.

Entire capacity of channel is reserved for the transmission.

Wires/cables/microwave or satellite links are used to connect.

Eg. Remote control and TV control system.

P o in t- to - P o in t L in e C o n fig u ra tio n

P o in t- to - P o in t L in e C o n fig u ra tio n

P o in t- to - P o in t L in e C o n fig u ra tio n

MULTIPOINT/MULTIDROP
More than two specific devices share a single link. Channel capacity is shared: 1.Spatially (Several devices simultaneously using the link) 2.Temporally (User must make turns, i.e. time shared)

M u ltip o in t L in e C o n fig u ra tio n

TOPOLOGY
Refers to the way a network is laid out physically or logically. It is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (nodes) to each other. Two or more devices connect to a link and two or more links forms a topology.

CATEGORIES OF TOPOLOGY

MESH TOPOLOGY
Every device has a dedicated pointto-point link to every other device. dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.

M e sh To p o lo g y

Advantages
The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.

Robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire system.

Privacy or security. When every message travels along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages.

Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the network manager to discover the precise

Limitations

USE

The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required. Every device must be connected to every other device, installation and reconnection are difficult.

The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.

Connection of telephone regional offices in which each regional office needs to be connected to every other regional office.

The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) is expensive.

Star Topology
Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, called a hub.

The devices are not directly linked to one another.

Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices.

The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which

S ta r To p o lo g y

Advantages
Less expensive than a mesh topology.

Each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others. This makes it easy to install and reconfigure.

Less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one connection: between that device and the hub.

Robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain active.

As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective links. Therefore easy fault identification and fault

Limitations
Dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.

It requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub. So more cabling is required in a star.

USE: The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs). High-speed LANs often use a star topology with a central hub.

Tree Topology
Variation of Star topology. Here a central hub (should always be active)is the main controller and below it are different secondary hubs (active/passive) controlling different workstations. Eg: Cable TV technology

Bus Topology
It is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.

Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.

A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector.

As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat. So it becomes weaker and weaker

B u s To p o lo g y

Advantages
Ease of installation - Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths.

Uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

Example - four network devices in the same room require four lengths of cable reaching all the way to the hub. In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone cable stretches through the entire facility.

Disadvantages
Difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is designed to be optimally efficient at installation, therefore difficult to add new devices.

Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation can be controlled by limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a given length of cable.

A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on the same side of the problem.

USE: Ethernet LANs use a bus topology

Ring Topology
Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on either side of it.

A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination.

Each device in the ring has a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them

R in g To p o lo g y

Advantages
Easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections.

Fault isolation is simplified. In a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the

Limitations
A break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network.

USE: Was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area network Token Ring. Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made this topology less popular.

A network can be hybrid

H y b rid To p o lo g y

Transmission mode defines the direction of signal flow between two linked devices.

Simplex
Communication is unidirectional one way. One can transmit only and one can receive only. Eg. Keyboards, Monitor etc.

S im p le x

Half-Duplex
Each station can both transmit as well as receive, but not at the same time (when one device sends other receive and vice-versa). Eg. Walkie-Talkie

H a lf- D u p le x

Full-Duplex
Also called Duplex. Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. Eg. Telephone network

F u ll- D u p le x

LAN
Links devices in a single office/building/ campus in span of few kms. LANs allow resources to be shared between PCs and workstations. Uses only one type of transmission medium. Common LAN topologies are Bus, Ring and Star. Have data in range 4 to 16 Mbps, but increasing to 100 Mbps +.

L o ca l A re a N e tw o rk

L o ca l A re a N e tw o rk

MAN
Designed to extend over entire city. Can be single network or a connection of LANs. Eg. An organization use MAN to connect LANs at their various offices located in the city.

M e tro p o lita n A re a N e tw o rk

WAN
Provides long distance transmission of data, voice, image, video over large geographical areas. Wholly owned and used by a single company and so called called Enterprise Network.

W id e A re a N e tw o rk

INTERNETWORKS or Internet
Individual networks are joined by devices like routers and gateways.

In te rn e tw o rk ( Internet)

SIGNALS
A signal is any time-varying or spatialvarying quantity.

Analog (continuous) and digital (discrete)

Periodic signals (completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a period and repeats the pattern over identical intervals. Completeness of one full pattern is called a cycle) and Aperiodic

Transformation of Information to Signals

 Frequency is No. of cycles per second. F = 1/T

Bandwidth is the range of frequencies the signal occupies. B = fH fL

Amplitude is the instantaneous height of the signal

Phase is the shift of wave along the time axis.

Bit rate (bits/sec) and Bit Interval (duration of one bit) are used to describe a digital signal.

Communications tasks
Transmission system utilization Interfacing Signal generation Synchronization Exchange management Security Error detection and correction Flow control Addressing Routing Recovery Message formatting Network management

Transmission system utilization

The need to make efficient use of transmission facilities shared among of communicating devices.

Techniques (multiplexing) are used to allocate the total capacity of a transmission medium among a number of users.

Congestion control techniques to assure that the system is not overwhelmed by excessive demand for transmission services.

 To communicate, a device must interface with the transmission system.

Once an interface is established, signal generation is required for communication.

The properties of the signal, such as form and intensity, must be such that they are: (1) capable of being propagated through the transmission system, and (2) interpretable as data at the receiver.

The signals be generated to conform to the requirements of the transmission system and receiver and there must be some form of synchronization between transmitter and receiver.

The receiver must be able to determine when a signal

 There are requirements for communication between two parties under the term exchange management.

If data are to be exchanged in both directions over a period of time, the two parties must cooperate.

For data processing devices, more will be needed than simply establishing a connection. Like: 1.whether both devices may transmit simultaneously or must take turns, 2.the amount of data to be sent at one time, 3.the format of the data, and 4.what to do if certain contingencies, such as

 In all communications systems, there is a potential for error; transmitted signals are distorted to some extent before reaching their destination.

Error detection and correction are required where errors cannot be tolerated usually with data processing systems.

Flow control is required to assure that the source does not overwhelm the destination by sending data faster than they can be processed and absorbed.

Addressing - The transmission system must assure that the destination system, and only that system, receives the data.

Routing - transmission system may itself be a

 Recovery is a concept distinct from that of error correction by Recovery techniques. The objective is either to be able to resume activity at the point of interruption or at least to restore the state of the systems involved to the condition prior to the beginning of the exchange.

Message formatting has to do with an agreement between two parties as to the form of the data to be exchanged or transmitted. Example, both sides must use the same binary code for characters.

Data communications facility is a complex system that cannot create or run itself. Network management capabilities are needed to: 1. configure the system, 2. monitor its status, 3. react to failures and overloads, and 4. plan intelligently for future growth.

Key Elements of Internet

Hosts: End systems like PCs, Workstations, servers, mainframes etc. Routers: Connects the networks. Each router attaches to two or more networks. Hosts breaks the data to be sent into a sequence of packets called IP Datagram/ packets . Each packet includes a numeric address of destination host called IP Address (address is carried in an IP packet). Hosts are sometimes grouped together in a LAN. Individual hosts and LANs are connected to an ISP (Internet Service Provider) through a POP (Point of Presence) which is a facility where customer can connect to ISP network. Connection is made in a series of steps starting with the Customer Premises Equipments (CPE). CPE is the communication equipment located onsite within the host, Eg. Modem. Network Access Point (NAP) - Facility that provide infrastructure to move data between connected networks. It is one of the several major internet interconnection points that serve to tie several ISPs together. NAPs are owned by NSPs (Network Service Providers). An NSP can also be ISP but not always. Frame: group of bits containing data, addresses & control info.

 When sender is sending at higher speed than receiver can receive. Occurs in error free as well as error prone transmission. Flow control throttles the sender in sending no faster than receiver can handle. Requires feedback mechanism to make aware sender if receiver is keeping up with it or not. Flow control prevents congestion. Flow control is avoiding sending data faster. Congestion control is avoiding congestion within the subnet.

Flow Control and Congestion

 Congestion occurs when users of network collectively demand more resources than network has to offer. Congestion can be solved by good routing and buffer management. Controlling the flow of packets in the network is flow control.

NEED FOR PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE When computers, terminals, and/or other data
processing devices exchange data, there must be a data path between the two either directly or via a communication network.

Typical tasks to be performed are: 1. The source system must either activate the direct data communication path or inform the communication network of the identity of the desired destination system. 2. The source system must ascertain that the destination system is prepared to receive data. 3. The file transfer application on the source system must ascertain that the file management program on the destination system is prepared to accept and store the file for this particular user.

Architecture for file transfer

 Communications involve three agents: applications, computers, and networks. Communication task is divided into three relatively independent layers: 1.Network access layer 2.Transport layer 3.Application layer

NETWORK ACCESS LAYER

Concerned with the exchange of data between a computer and the network to which it is attached.

The sending computer provide the network with the address of the destination computer.

The sending computer may invoke certain services, such as priority, that might be provided by the network.

The specific software used depends on 1. the type of network to be used; 2. different standards have been developed for circuit switching, packet switching, local area networks, and others.

TRANSPORT LAYER All of the data arrive at the destination application and in the same order in which they were sent. Mechanisms for providing reliability independent of the nature of the applications.

APPLICATION LAYER Contains the logic needed to support the various user applications like file transfer, a separate module is needed that is peculiar to that application.

Example
Computer A, wishes to send a message to another application, associated with computer B.

The application at A hands the message over to its transport layer with instructions to send it to SAP on computer B.

The transport layer hands the message over to the network access layer, which instructs the network to send the message to computer B.

Network need not be told the identity of the destination service access point. All that it needs to know is that the data are intended for computer B.

To control this operation, control information, as well

 The sending application generates a block of data and passes this to the transport layer.

The transport layer break this block into two smaller pieces to make it more manageable.

To each of these pieces the transport layer appends a transport header, containing protocol control information.

The combination of data from the next higher layer and control information is known as a protocol data unit (PDU).

The header in each transport PDU contains control information to be used by the peer transport protocol at computer B.

Header include:

 Next the transport layer hand each protocol data unit over to the network layer, with instructions to transmit it to the destination computer.

Network access protocol must present the data to the network with a request for transmission.

Network access protocol appends a network access header to the data it receives from the transport layer, creating a network access PDU.

Header includes: 1.Destination computer address.

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

TCPI-IP protocol suit is a result of protocol research and development conducted on the experimental packetswitched network, ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).

It consists of a large collection of protocols that have been issued as Internet standards by the Internet Architecture Board (IAB).

Communication task for TCPIIP into five relatively independent layers: 1. Application layer 2. Host-to-host, or transport layer 3. Internet layer 4. Network access layer

PHYSICAL LAYER
It covers the physical interface between a data transmission device (e.g., workstation, computer) and a transmission medium or network.

This layer is concerned with specifying: 1.the characteristics of the transmission medium, 2.the nature of the signals,

NETWORK access layer

It is concerned with the exchange of data between an end system and the network to which it is attached.

Provide the network with the address of the destination computer, invoke certain services, such as priority.

Specific software used at this layer depends on the type of network to be used; different standards have been developed for circuit-switching, packet-switching (e.g., X.25), local area networks (e.g., Ethernet), and others.

INTERNET LAYER
In cases where two devices are attached to different networks, procedures are needed to allow data to traverse multiple interconnected networks. This is the function of the internet layer.

The internet protocol (IP) is used at this layer to provide the routing function across multiple networks.

This protocol is implemented in the end systems and in routers.

A router is a processor that connects two networks and whose primary function is to relay data from one network to the other on its route from the source to the destination end system.

HOST-TO-HOST LAYER/ TRANSPORT LAYER

Data be exchanged reliably and All of the data arrive at the destination application and Data arrive in the same order in which they were sent.

APPLICATION LAYER
It contains the logic needed to support the various user applications. Eg. file transfer, a separate module is needed that is peculiar to that application.

TCP/IP Protocol architecture model

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

TCPI-IP protocol suit is a result of protocol research and development conducted on the experimental packetswitched network, ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).

It consists of a large collection of protocols that have been issued as Internet standards by the Internet Architecture Board (IAB).

Communication task for TCPIIP into five relatively independent layers: 1. Application layer 2. Host-to-host, or transport layer 3. Internet layer 4. Network access layer

PHYSICAL LAYER
It covers the physical interface between a data transmission device (e.g., workstation, computer) and a transmission medium or network.

This layer is concerned with specifying: 1.the characteristics of the transmission medium, 2.the nature of the signals,

NETWORK access layer

It is concerned with the exchange of data between an end system and the network to which it is attached.

Provide the network with the address of the destination computer, invoke certain services, such as priority.

Specific software used at this layer depends on the type of network to be used; different standards have been developed for circuit-switching, packet-switching (e.g., X.25), local area networks (e.g., Ethernet), and others.

INTERNET LAYER
In cases where two devices are attached to different networks, procedures are needed to allow data to traverse multiple interconnected networks. This is the function of the internet layer.

The internet protocol (IP) is used at this layer to provide the routing function across multiple networks.

This protocol is implemented in the end systems and in routers.

A router is a processor that connects two networks and whose primary function is to relay data from one network to the other on its route from the source to the destination end system.

HOST-TO-HOST LAYER/ TRANSPORT LAYER

Data be exchanged reliably and All of the data arrive at the destination application and Data arrive in the same order in which they were sent.

APPLICATION LAYER
It contains the logic needed to support the various user applications. Eg. file transfer, a separate module is needed that is peculiar to that application.

TCP/IP Protocol architecture model

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection ) Model

Developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as a model for a computer communications architecture and as a framework for developing protocol standards. It consists of seven layers: 1. Application 2. Presentation 3. Session 4. Transport 5. Network 6. Data Link 7. Physical

Seven layers of the OSI model

Interaction between layers in the OSI model

Peer-to-Peer Processes
Device A sends a stream of bits to device B (through intermediate nodes).

At the higher layers, communication move down through the layers on device A, over to device B, and then back up through the layers.

Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it receives from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just below it.

At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each process receiving and removing the data meant for it.

Example, layer 2 removes the data meant for it, then

 The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the sending device and back up through the layers of the receiving device is made possible by an interface between each pair of adjacent layers.

Each interface defines the information and services a layer must provide for the layer above it.

Well-defined interfaces and layer functions provide modularity to a

Organization of the Layers

The seven layers belongs to three subgroups. NETWORK SUPPORT LAYERS: Layers I, 2, and 3-physical, data link, and network-are the network support layers. Deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to another (such as electrical specifications, physical connections, physical addressing, and transport timing and reliability). USER SUPPORT LAYERS Layers 5, 6, and 7-session, presentation, and application are the user support layers; TRANSPORT LAYER Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups and ensures that what the lower layers have transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can use. The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in software; lower layers are a combination of hardware and software,

EXCHANGE OSI

USING THE MODEL

 A packet (header and data) at level 7 is encapsulated in a packet at level 6. The whole packet at level 6 is encapsulated in a packet at level 5, and so on.

Data portion of a packet at level N - 1 carries the whole packet (data and header and maybe trailer) from level N.

The concept is called encapsulation; level N - 1 is not aware of which part of the encapsulated packet is data and which part is the header or trailer.

For level N - 1, the whole packet coming from level N is treated as one integral unit.

PHYSICAL LAYER
Coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical medium. Deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium. Defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission to

Movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

 Physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium.

Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of Os or 1s) with no interpretation. Bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how Os and I s are changed to signals).

Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the physical layer. The physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long it lasts.

 Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level. The sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.

Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media. In a point-topoint configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is

 Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology, a star topology, a ring topology , a bus topology or a hybrid topology. Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Data Link Layer

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmissi on facility, to a reliable link.

 Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable data units called frames.

Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the senders network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects the network to the next one.

Flow control.

Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.

Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-todestination delivery of a packet across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on the same network (links), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination.

If two systems are connected to the same link, there is no need for a network layer. If the two systems are attached to different networks (links) with connecting devices between the networks (links), there is a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE NETWORK LAYER

Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, logical addressing system help distinguish the source and destination systems.

The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver. Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create intemetworks (network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the packets to their final destination.

Transport Layer
Responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. A process is an application program running on a host. Network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats each one independently, as each belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does. The transport layer, ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the source-to-destination level.

Transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.

Responsibilities of the transport layer

Service-point addressing. Computers run several programs at the same time. So the source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process (running program) on the other. The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer. Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.

 Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated. Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control. Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control. The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.

Session Layer
The session layer is the network dialog controller.

It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.

 Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the communication between two processes to take place in either halfduplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode. Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a stream of data.

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems. Responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.

 Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are exchanging information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on.

The information must be changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.

 Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.

Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends the resulting message out over the network.

Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original form.

Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.

Data compression becomes important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.

Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed information services. Responsible for providing services to the user

Services provided by the application layer

Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host. The user's computer talks to the software terminal which, in turn, talks to the host, and vice versa. The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals and allows the user to log on.

 File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user 1. to access files in a remote host, 2. to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer, and 3. to manage or control files in a remote computer locally. Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage. Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and access for global information about various objects and services.

Summary of OSI layers functions

Layers of the TCPIIP and OSI architectures

 Advantages of standards 1. Assures that there will be a large market for a particular piece of Equipment or software. 2. Encourages mass production and, the use of large-scaleintegration (LSI) or very-large-scale-integration (VLSI) Techniques, resulting in lower costs. 3. A standard allows products from multiple vendors to communicate, giving the Purchaser more flexibility in equipment selection and use. Disadvantages : A standard tends to freeze the technology. By the time a standard is developed, Subjected to review and compromise, and promulgated, more efficient Techniques are possible. There are multiple standards for the same thing which gives rise to multiple conflicting of Standards.

Service Primitives
Services between adjacent layers in OSI model are expressed in primitives and parameters.

Primitive specifies function to be performed

Parameters are used to pass data and control information.

Service Primitives Types

Request: issued by service user to invoke some service and pass parameters to specify fully the requested service.

Indication: Issued by service provider either to 1. Indicate that a procedure has been invoked by the peer service user on the connection and to provide the associated parameters, or 2. notify the service user of a provider-initiated action

Response: Issued by service user to acknowledge or complete some procedure previously invoked by an indication of that user.

Confirm: Issued by service provider to acknowledge or complete some procedure previously invoked by a request by the service user.

SWITCHING NETWORK
Switching nodes provide facility that will move data from node to node until they reach destination. They are connected in some topology. End devices wishing to communicate are called stations. Collection of nodes is called communication network. Some nodes have sole task of connecting to other nodes (internal switching of data). Some nodes have one or more stations attached. Network is not fully connected usually. To enhance reliability it is desirable to have more than one possible path. Switched networks are classified as: 1. Circuit Switched 2. Packet switched.

CIRCUIT SWITCHING

CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Dedicated communication path between two stations. Path is a connected sequence of links between network nodes. On each physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to the connection. Communication involves three phases: 1. Circuit establishment 2. Data transfer 3. Circuit disconnect Examples : Public Telephone Network, Private Branch Exchange (PBX)

Circuit Establishment
Before any signals can be transmitted, an end-to-end (station-to-station) circuit must be established. Example: station A sends a request to node 4 requesting a connection to station E. The link from A to 4 is a dedicated line, so that part of the connection already exists. Node 4 must find the next leg in a route leading to node 6. Based on routing information and measures of availability node 4 selects the link to node 5, allocates a free channel on that link and sends a message requesting connection to E. Dedicated path has been established from A through 4 to 5. Number of stations may attach to 4, it must be able to establish internal paths from multiple stations to multiple nodes. Node 5 dedicates a channel to node 6 and internally ties that channel to the channel from node 4. Node 6 completes the connection to E. In completing the connection, a test is made to determine if E is busy or is prepared to accept the connection.

 Data transfer Information can now be transmitted from A through the network to E. The data may be analog or digital, depending on the nature of the network. As the carriers evolve to fully integrated digital networks, the use of digital (binary) transmission for both voice and data is becoming the dominant method. The path is A-4 link, internal switching through 4,4-5 channel, internal switching through 5, 5-6 channel, and internal switching through 6, 6 -E link. Generally, the connection is full-duplex (FDX). Circuit disconnect After some period of data transfer, the connection is terminated by the action of one of the two stations. Signals must be propagated to nodes 4, 5, and 6 to deallocate the dedicated resources.

LIMITATIONS
Connection path is established before data transmission begins. Thus, 1. channel capacity must be reserved between each pair of nodes in the path, and 2. each node must have available internal switching capacity to handle the requested connection. The switches must have the intelligence to make these allocations and to devise a route through the network. Channel capacity is dedicated for the duration of a connection, even if no data are being transferred. For a voice connection, utilization may be rather high, but it still does not approach 100 percent. For a terminal-to-computer connection, the capacity may be idle during most of the time of the connection.

 Performance: there is a delay prior to signal transfer for call establishment. But once the circuit is established, the network is effectively transparent to the users.

Information is transmitted at a fixed data rate with no delay other than that required for propagation through the transmission links. The delay at each node is negligible.

 Technology Limitations: 1.Getting dedicated path itself is a problem. 2.For end to end connection all intermediate nodes and links must be free. 3.When any node/link is unavailable request gets a busy response. 4. Economic Limitations: Providing dedicated path is a costly affair.

Blocking
Blocking occurs when network is unable to connect two stations as all possible paths are already in use. Switches provide no intermediate storage capacity. So blockage is possible on a circuit switch.

Limited value added function

Line protocols which can regulate the traffic (flow control) are not available.

Additional softwares and microcode must be added to provide these value added functions.

Constant data rate

Connection provides for transmission at a constant data rate. Each of the two devices must transmit and receive at same and constant data rate. Thus limits utility of network in interconnecting a variety of host computers and terminals.

Reordering not possible

When two or more packets are transmitted, there is possibility that they reach destination in wrong order. Reordering of packets

Examples
Circuit switching was developed to handle voice traffic but is now also used for data traffic.

Public telephone network is actually a collection of national networks interconnected to form the international service.

Originally designed and implemented to service analog telephone subscribers, the network now handles substantial data traffic via modem and is gradually being converted to a digital network.

Private branch exchange (PBX), used to interconnect telephones within a building or office. Circuit switching is also used in private networkscorporations or other large organizations interconnecting their various sites; these usually consist of PBX system.

Public telephone network

Architectural components of a public telecommunications network: 1. Subscribers: The devices that attach to the network. Most subscriber devices to public telecommunications networks are telephones, but the percentage of data traffic increases year by year. 2. 3. Local loop: It is the link between the subscriber and the network, also called the subscriber loop. Almost all local loop connections used twisted-pair wire. The length of a local loop is typically in a range from a few kilometers to a few tens of kilometers. 4. 5. Exchanges: The switching centers in the network. A switching center that directly supports subscribers is known as an end office. An end office will support many thousands of subscribers in a localized area. 6.

 Key requirements for voice traffic is that there must be virtually no transmission delay and certainly no variation in delay.

A constant signal transmission rate must be maintained, as transmission and reception occur at the same signal rate.

These requirements are necessary to allow normal human conversation.

Also the quality of the received signal must be sufficiently high to provide, at a minimum, intelligibility.

Circuit-switching technology has been driven by those applications that handle voice traffic.

Public circuit-switching network.

Subscribers connect directly to an end office, which switches traffic between subscribers and between a subscriber and other exchanges. The other exchanges are responsible for routing and switching traffic between end offices. To connect two subscribers attached to the same end office, a circuit is set up between. two subscribers

If

Digital Switch

Elements of a circuitswitch node

Provide a transparent (that there is a direct connection between attached pair of devices) signal path between any pair of attached devices. The connection must allow full-duplex transmission. The network-interface element represents the functions and hardware needed to connect digital devices, such as data processing devices and digital telephones, to the network.

Analog telephones can also be attached if the network interface contains the logic for converting to digital

Functions of Control Unit

Establishes connections: done on demandthat is, at the request of an attached device. To establish the connection, the control unit must handle and acknowledge the request, determine if the intended destination is free, and construct a path through the switch.

Maintain the connection: The digital switch uses time-division principles, this may require ongoing manipulation of the switching elements. The bits of the communication are transferred transparently (from the point of view of the attached devices).

Tear down the connection: either in response to a request from one of the parties or for its

 Circuit-switching device is blocking or non-blocking?

Blocking occurs when the network is unable to connect two stations because all possible paths between them are already in use.

A blocking network is one in which such blocking is possible. A non-blocking network permits all stations to be connected (in pairs) at once and grants all possible connection requests as long as the called party is free.

When a network is supporting only voice traffic, a blocking configuration is generally acceptable, as it is expected that most phone calls are of short duration and that therefore only a fraction of the telephones will be engaged at any time.

When data processing devices are involved, these assumptions may be invalid. For example, for a dataentry application, a terminal may be continuously connected to a computer for hours at a time.

Switching techniques internal to a single circuit-switching node: SPACEDIVISION SWITCHING Space-division switching was originally developed

for the analog environment and has been carried over into the digital.

The fundamental principles are the same,

A space-division switch is one in which the signal paths are physically separate from one another (divided in space).

Each connection requires the establishment of a physical path through the switch that is dedicated solely to the transfer of signals between the two endpoints.

Space-division switch
A simple crossbar matrix with 10 full-duplex I/O lines.

The matrix has 10 inputs and 10 outputs; each station attaches to the matrix via one input and one output line.

Interconnection is possible between any two lines by enabling the appropriate crosspoint.

A total of 100

 The number of crosspoints grows with the square of the number of attached stations. This is costly for a large switch.

Limitations of crossbar switch

The loss of a crosspoint prevents connection between the two devices whose lines intersect at that crosspoint.

The crosspoints are inefficiently utilized; even when all of the attached devices are active, only a

Multiple-stage Switches

Three-stage space-division switch

ADVANTAGES
The number of crosspoints is reduced, increasing crossbar utilization. The total number of crosspoints for 10 stations is reduced from 100 to 48.

There is more than one path through the network to connect two endpoints, increasing reliability.

Limitations
Requires a more complex scheme. control

To establish a path in a single-stage network, it is only necessary to enable a single gate. In a multistage network, a free path through the stages must be determined and the appropriate gates enabled.

It may be blocking. But a single-stage crossbar matrix is nonblocking; that is, a path is always available to connect an input to an output.

Time-division Switching
All modern circuit switches use digital time-division techniques for establishing and maintaining "circuits." Time-division switching involves the partitioning of a lower-speed bit stream into pieces that share a higher-speed stream with other bit streams. The individual pieces, or slots, are manipulated by control logic to route data from input to output. TDM bus switching, and all digital switching techniques, are based on the use of synchronous time-division multiplexing (TDM). Synchronous TDM permits multiple low-speed bit streams to share a high-speed line. A set of inputs is sampled in turn. The samples are organized serially into slots (channels) to form a recurring frame of slots, with the number of slots per frame equal to the number of inputs. A slot may be a bit, a byte, or some longer block. In synchronous TDM, the source and destination of the data in each time slot are known. Hence, there is no need for address bits in each slot.

Each device attaches to the switch through a full-duplex line. These lines are connected through controlled gates to a high-speed digital bus. Each line is assigned a time slot for providing input. For the duration of the slot, that line's gate is enabled, allowing a small burst of data onto the bus. For that same time slot, one of the other line gates is enabled for output. Thus, during that time slot, data are switched from the enabled input line to the enabled output line. During successive time slots, different input/output pairings are enabled, allowing a number of connections to be carried over the shared bus. An attached device achieves fullduplex operation by transmitting during one assigned time slot and receiving during another.

 Transparency: Sender and Receiver can use any bit rate, format or framing method they want to. Carrier/trunks does not know or care. This transparency allows voice, data and fax to co-exist in one telephone system.

Advantages of Circuit Switching

Charging is based on distance and time and not on traffic.

Reliability increases by the use of Multistage switches.

TDM Bus switching can accommodate lines of varying data rates.

 Once a circuit is established, it appears as direct connection of two attached station, no special networking logic is needed at either points.

Delivery is guaranteed and sequential.

Delays are small and constant.

Communication takes place in real time i.e. can handle real time traffic.

Is not store and forward type of switching. (Switches provide no intermediate storage capacity.)

MESSAGE SWITCHING

MESSAGE SWITCHING
Based on store and forward technology.

No dedicated physical path is established in advance between sender and receiver.

When a node has a message block to send it is stored in the first switching office and then forwarded later to next node.

Message hops from node to node.

1. 2. 3.

At each hop the entire message: Is received Is inspected for errors Temporarily stored in the secondary memory until a next node is available.

Example
User A sends a message to user B. Links 1 and 2 are unavailable (either down or in use) for transmission. Message must be retransmitted through over links 3 and 4.

Working: 1. Message is transmitted from user A to the DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) at node 1 where it is stored. 2. When link 3 is free, message is read from storage at node 1 and is sent to node 3, where is stored. 3. When link 4 is free, message is read from storage at node 3 and sent to node 2. 4. Finally message is read from storage at node 2

Message Switch
Is a specialized computer.

Functions: Accepts traffic from terminals and computers attached to it through dial up/leased telephone lines. Examines address in the header of the message and switches (routes) the traffic to receiving DTE. Can store the information due to storage capability of switch.

 Do not support interactive (real time) traffic. But message can be sent at high speed by establishing priority for different types of traffic. High priority traffic is queued for shorter periods. This supports interactive (real time) traffic.

 Use tape files to perform back up of disk files. Operates with Master-slave Relationship. Switches perform Polling and selection to manage traffic coming into and going out.

Example: User DTE A has data for user DTE B. 1)Switches perform Polling and upon polling A 2)Message is transmitted to the switch. 3)Based on priority data are stored in one of several disk queues. 4)Depending on overall traffic condition and message priority, switch dequeues the message (message goes out of waiting queue) 5)Sends select command to C. 6)At site C an acknowledgement is sent to switch.

Advantages
Queuing onto the disk provides a method of smooth traffic (by queuing a low priority traffic during peak traffic periods).

No real end to end path is created. This makes good use of communication channels as no resources need to be reserved until the channels are available.

Overcomes limitations of circuit switching in which link efficiency was reduced due to non-storage capacity. In message switching efficiency is increased as less number of switches can serve more number of users.

Supports interactive applications by using priority in queuing. Queuing method also smoothens traffic (flow control) as we can queue up low priority traffic at peak traffic period.

Limitations
It is master-slave structure so if switches fails, entire network can be lost. It is only the switch where all network goes in and out. NoteTo overcome this limitations many organizations provide a duplicate message switch, which can resume working if first one fails.

Due to arrangement of many message switches there is degradation of response time and decreased throughput.

Does not utilize communication lines efficiently compared to other techniques.

 Message blocks can be very long so large storage capacities must be available at each node to buffer.

When long messages are in processing shorter message have to wait for long, thus starvation of short messages. Note Hence is not used in LANs.

Waiting delay at nodes.

Data is stored so do not support real time (interactive) communication.

Due to unequal message lengths equal distribution of traffic is not possible.

 By priority and queuing, certain portion of the network are busy and can cause blocking of the traffic/certain messages. These low priority blocked messages/traffic are stored and later routed to sites when they are free to accept.

PACKET SWITCHING

Introduction
Much of the time the line is idle in a circuit-switching approach.

In a circuit-switching network, the connection provides for transmission at constant data rate. Thus the two devices that are connected must transmit and receive at the same data rate as the other; this limits the utility of the network in interconnecting a variety of host computers and terminals.

Packet switching is similar to message switching. System accepts packets from an information source, stores them in buffer memory and forward to next packet switch where same store and forward operation occurs.

In a packet-switched network, there is no resource reservation; resources are allocated on demand.

 Data are transmitted in short packets.

WORKING

A upper bound on packet length is 1000 bytes.

If a source has a longer message to send, the message is broken up into a series of packets.

Each packet contains a portion (or all for a short message) of the user's data plus some

 Header contains the control information that includes the information like source and destination address and packet sequence etc. to route the packet through the network and deliver it to the intended destination. Trailer is a checksum used for error control.

At each node en route, the packet is received, stored briefly, and passed on to the next node. There is acknowledgement scheme between adjacent packet switches so that packets can be retransmitted if not acknowledged (when lost in transit) or negatively acknowledged (when error is detected).

Consider a packet to be sent from station A to station E. The packet will include control information that indicates that the intended destination is E. The packet is sent from A to node 4. Node 4 stores the packet, determines the next leg of the route (say 5), and queues the packet to go out on that link (the 4-5 link). When the link is available, the packet is transmitted to node 5, which will forward the packet to node 6, and finally to E.

Example

ADVANTAGES
Line efficiency is greater, as a single node-tonode link can be dynamically shared by many packets over time. The packets are queued up and transmitted as rapidly as possible over the link. (In circuit switching, time on a node-to-node link is preallocated then much of the time, such a link may be idle because a portion of its time is dedicated to a connection which is idle.)

A packet-switching network can perform data-rate conversion. Two stations of different data rates can exchange packets because each connects to its node at its proper data rate.

No Blocking: When traffic becomes heavy on a circuit-switching network, some calls are blocked; the network refuses to accept additional connection requests until the load on the network decreases. On a packet-switching network, packets are still accepted, but delivery delay increases.

Packet Switching Techniques

Datagram Packet Switching Virtual Circuit Packet Switching

Datagram Packet Switching

 Each packet is treated independently, with no reference to packets that have gone before.

Station A has a threepacket message to send to E. It transmits the packets, 1-2-3, to node 4.

Datagram Packet Switching

On each packet, node 4 must make a routing decision.

Packet 1 arrives for delivery to E. Node 4 forward this packet to either node 5 or node 7 as the next step in the route.

 But for packet 3, node 4 finds that its queue for node 7 is now shorter and so queues packet 3 for that node.

So the packets, each with the same destination address, do not all follow the same route. Note: The destination address in the header of a packet in a datagram network remains the same during the entire journey of the packet.

Thus it is possible that packet 3 will beat packet 2 to node 6.

Also possible that the packets will be delivered to E in a different sequence from the one in which they were sent.

 It

is possible for a packet to be destroyed in the network. Example, if a packet switching node crashes momentarily, all of its queued packets may be lost.

If this happen node 6 has no way of knowing that one of the packets in the sequence of packets has been lost.

It is up to E to detect the loss of a packet and figure out how to recover it.

 In this technique, each packet, treated independently, and so called as a datagram (unit of data).

Datagram switching is a connectionless network. It is implemented in the network layer. Note - A connectionless network goes directly from an idle connection (two DTEs are not logically connected to each other) into a data transfer mode, followed directly by idle connection.

Thus no connection establishment phase and connection release phase in datagram approach.

It does not have network-wide acknowledgements, flow control, error recovery. But these services are provided on a link by link basis.

Also called Dynamic Routing.

 There are no setup or teardown phases, so each switch (or packet switch) has a routing table which is based on the destination address.

Routing Table

The routing tables are dynamic and are updated periodically.

The destination addresses and the corresponding forwarding output ports are recorded in the tables.

This is different from the table of a circuit

Datagram packet switching

Circuit switching

A datagram network with four switches (routers)

ADVANTAGES
Call setup phase is avoided. If a station wishes to send only one or a few packets, datagram delivery will be quicker.

Faster than Message Switching so can be used in LANs for supporting interactive traffic.

The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a circuit-switched network as the resources are allocated only when there are packets to be transferred.

Flexible If congestion develops in one part of the network, incoming datagrams will be routed to some other part away from congestion.

 Reliable If few nodes fails, packets find alternative route bypassing damaged node.

Enables dynamic use of bandwidth and provide high robust services.

An upper limit is placed on packet size so that no user can monopolize any transmission line more than a few 10s of microsec.

In case of multipacket message, each node can forward any packet of the multipacket message as soon as the packet arrives, it does not have to wait for the next packet. This decreases delay and increases throughput.

Small switching nodes as compared to electromechanical or computerized switching nodes is Circuit Switching.

LIMITATIONS
Each independent datagram is routed independently, so processing for each datagrams at each node is longer. Thus long message datagrams does not hold good. Congestion avoidance is difficult, as resources are not reserved in advance and hence necessary BW and routing capacity is not available to arriving packets. Dynamics of traffic patterns in network and lack of timely knowledge about those patters makes it difficult for WANs. Overhead bits in each packet. Greater delayin a datagram network than in a virtual-circuit network. Although there are no setup and teardown phases, each packet may experience a wait at a switch before it is forwarded. Not all packets in a message necessarily travel through the same switches, the delay is not uniform for the packets of a message.

Delay in a datagram network

The packet travels through two switches.

There are three transmission times (3T), three propagation delays (slopes 3't of the lines), and two waiting times (W1 + W2)

Ignore the processing time in each switch,