Research philosophies and approaches

 What is a research paradigm?  Characteristics of research paradigms  Ontology, epistemology, axiology, methodology  Pragmatism  Research Approaches  Induction & Deduction  The most important paradigms to know  Positivsm, realism (post/neo positivism), Interpretivism

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The research onion

Fig 4.1. in Saunders et al, (2008)

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Research philosophy
Research philosophy is an over-arching term relating to the development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge
Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009)

A paradigm is a basic set of beliefs that guide action, whether of the everyday garden variety or action taken with a disciplined inquiry.
Guba, Egon 1990. The Paradigm Dialog. London: Sage, p. 17.

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Characteristics of research philosophies

 Ontology
 What is the nature of reality? Is there a reality?

 Epistemology
What is the relationship between the knower (the researcher) and the know(able)?

 Axiology
 The role of values and ethics in research

 Methodology
 How should the researcher/inquirer go about finding out knowledge?
A mix of Guba and Saunders et al.

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Issues in research philosophy

 One paradigm fits all or a more pragmatic view?  Research approach  Induction
 Generation of hypotheses from empirical research

 Deduction
 Generation of hypotheses from theory (knowledge). Can be in the form of axioms

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Deduction
5 sequential stages of testing theory
     Deducing a hypothesis Expressing the hypothesis operationally Testing the operational hypothesis Examining the specific outcome of the enquiry Modifying the theory (if necessary)
Adapted from Robson (2002)

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Characteristics of Deduction
 Explaining causal relationships between variables  Establishing controls for testing hypotheses  Independence of the researcher  Concepts operationalised for quantative measurement  Generalisation

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Induction
Building theory by
 Understanding the way human build their world  Permitting alternative explanations of whats going on  Being concerned with the context of events  Using more qualitative data  Using a variety of data collection methods

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Positivism
 Tries to uncover the one truth about how things are or a least what we focus on.  (Social) Science then is: A structured method combining logical deduction with precise empirical observations (of the behaviour of individuals) to reveal and confirm causal relationships that are generally valid with a known probality and which can therefore be used for prediction.

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Positivism
 The purpose of science is then to uncover the truth to be able to control and predict.  Humans are expected to be rational.  Objectivity and precision is important. Therefore measurement and measures, tools and procedures are very important.  Because reality is stable and thruths are generally valid, vi kan deduct new thruths from the ones that we know.

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Positivism How must we conduct research?  Set up hypotheses which the researcher seeks to verify logically and empirically  It is important that hypotheses are set up in a way that makes testing possible.  Test by different researchers under different circumstances is important - replication  If empirical research does not support the hypothesis, it may be an anomali, methodological problems or that the theory is not correct.

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Positivism

How are results presented?

Facts, and how these facts were reached. Research is assumed to be free of values and values therefore has no influence on research or results. The good academic secretary (Den gode embedsmand)

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Paradigm: Positivism (natural sciences)

Ontology
Is there one truth and can it be found?

Epistemology
Relationship with the researched : Objectivity (observing) or Subjectivity (empathy)

Axiology
The role of values and ethics

Methodology
How should research be conducted?

Realism there is one reality, and we can find it. We can describe thruths that are valid at all times, regardsless of persons and places (contexts). Research is to find these.

The researcher should not influence what is research. Objectivity requires refrainment from contact observation of facts is preferable

The researcher must be(and can is, in fact) free from value ladennes and does not interpret. Knowledge must be independent of the individual conducting the research.

Verification of hypotheses RCT Randomized controlled trial If necessary interviews about facts Analytical mindset - Split problem in small entities - Aggregate results by summing up Optimization

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Neo or postpositivism/Critical realism

 Humans have bounded rationality and are not completely free of values and interpretations  There is an imbalance between
Rigor and relevance Internal versus external validity Laboratory or field research Precision and richness Precise measurements versus learning during research Replication versus catching the nuances/small differences Quantitative versus qualitative Elegance and applicability Grand theories are they applicable? General theories versus specific contexts Discovery versus verification Discovery is not science however new things are discovered through exploratin Verification is science but discoveres nothing new

Guba pp. 21
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Paradigm: Neo or postpositivism/Critical realism

Ontology
Is there one truth and can it be found?

Epistemology
Relationship with the researched : Objectivity (observing) or Subjectivity (empathy)

Axiology
The role of values and ethics

Methodology
How should research be conducted?

There is one reality but humans have a bounded rationality and are therefore not capable of fully understanding it. Critical realism

Complete objectivity is not possible but the good researcher must try to acheive it. Accept that interaction in some instances is unavoidable. But the researcher must act as neutral as possible.

Very conscious about own and participants values and interpretations

Falsification of hypoteses Multiple methods depending on research topic and context Triangulation methods, data, theories, researchers A focus on context and synergies. Systems Satisfication

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Interpretivism
Related to humanism, hermeneutic, konstructivism There is not an eternally valid truth about reality. Reality is a social construction (social constructivism) A lot of concepts describe things that are not physically there  Science should aim at understanding how the individual perceives reality    

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Interpretivism how do you do research?

 To get a better understanding of how other human beings perceive the world around them and themselves, you have to identify with them. This means that the researcher cannot and should not be objective but still try to be free of judgements.  The researcher has to experience/sense and then consider what this means. A piece of text can be read in many ways depending on the spectacles you put on.  A process from intrasubjectivity til intersubjectivity  The hermeneutic circle/spiral

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Interpretivism how do you do research?

 Often, it is necessary to interpret the observed to understand behavioiur as behaviour is full of symbolic gestures  The researcher kan never be completely objective our senses and prior experiences and knowledge differ and therefore we interpret things differently  If we do not know what is interesting in advance, we need to gather many data make thick descriptions

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Interpretivism - results
 Descriptions of the observed and the interpretations made and development of concepts which can describe the experienced  Results often presented with data in the form of citations  Results can be a theory about how an individual or a group of people experince something. This theory is put into some form of theoretical context

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Paradigm: Interpretivism (humanistic)

Ontology
Is there one truth and can it be found?

Epistemology
Relationship with the researched : Objectivity (observing) or Subjectivity (empathy) Reality is the common realization of the world. The social reconstruction. This requires empathy and thus the researcher must be subjective. And use subjective judgements which still have to be valid and argumented for.

Axiology
The role of values and ethics

Methodology
How should research be conducted?

Relativistic reality is a social construction something that is recreated by human minds No theory can ever be verified beyond everything. Every test is partial.

Data are never free of interpretation. They are interpreted based on prior theoretical knowledge and experiences of the researcher. Data are never free of values. Whether a result is bad, good, important or not is judged on the basis of ethical values. Whether a problem is relevant to use resources to solve is based on ethical values.

The choice of methodology must ensure that the social reconstruction of reality is correct . Often, this is done in a hermeneutic circle. Constant shift between fieldwork and interpretation.

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Choosing your research approach

The right choice of approach helps you to
 Make a more informed decision about the research design  Think about which strategies will work for your research topic  Adapt your design to cater for any constraints
Adapted from Easterby-Smith et al. (2008)

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Deductive and Inductive research

ajor differences between these approaches

Saunders et al, (2009)

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