English Literature 8

Drama after Shakespeare

  Under the early Stuart monarchs, (James I and Charles I) there was a definite shift in moral view. Elizabethan confidence began to waver* and a rather more cynical (and realistic) view of human nature and corruption began to hold sway*. Gradually the audience was also changing: Shakesperares move to the inside and more exclusive Blackfriars Theatre in 1609 was sign that the theatre was losing its appeal to the masses, despite the popular successes by Thomas Dekker, John Ford, Francis Beaumont, John Fletcher (they wrote very popular comedies in the period 1608-1613). 1608By the time the Puritans closed the Theatres in 1642 drama was in serious decline.* *to waver: vacillare *to hold sway: avere infuenza *the stock assumption of literary historians was that in the later sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries there was an intense mutual hostility between Puritanism and the stage. Puritans regarded theaters as abominable haunts (tana) of vice and corruption which a well-regulated state would completely suppress. Dramatists wellregarded Puritans as hypocrites, who pretended to be holier than other people but were in fact motivated by various kinds of greed, for food, sex, and money.

  

 Classical settings such as Venice or Rome gave way to portratis of the corruption and hypocrisy of contemporary London society. This desperate world-views culminates in the worldtragedies of John Webster* (1580-1634) which (1580are unequalled in their gloomy* vision of human nature.  *gloomy: oscuro  *his most celebrated works are tragedies, The White Devil (1609), The Duchess of Malfi (1612)

The Renaissance: prose

 Alongside with the scientific and mathematical developments of the Renaissance went a parallel blossoming in the art of prose.  The Renaissance prose displays a clear progress from the rather elaborate and ornamental style based on Cicero, which seemed too dense with subordinate clauses and artificial to modern readers*  *Lyly's popular prose romance, Euphues, or The Anatomy of Wit (1578), set the fashion for the decade before Shakespeare started writing. Euphues is a rather moral romance distinguished by its elaborate style. Lyly was one of those who wanted to raise English prose to the height of sophistication of the great Latin stylists. The stylists. result is at times almost comic to us now--and soon became the now--and subject of parody in his own time--but it was an important time--but development in the awareness of English writers of the power of the language they spoke. another interesting example of Lyly's spoke. elegant and elaborate style is Endymion(1591)

Euphuism
 It became an elegant Elizabethan literary style marked by excessive use of balance, antithesis, and alliteration and by frequent use of similes drawn from mythology and nature. The word is also used to denote artificial elegance. It was derived from the name of a character in the prose romances Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit (1578) and Euphues and his England (1580) by the English author Lyly. Although the style soon fell out of fashion, it played an important role in the development of English prose. It appeared at a time of experimentation with prose styles, and it styles, offered prose that was lighter and more fanciful than previous writing. The influence of euphuism can be seen in the works of William Shakespeare who imitated the style in some works and parodied it in others. Both Lyly's prose works and his plays give many examples of the Renaissance creed that male friendship is to be considered superior to the love of a man for a woman (the woman's point of view is not considered). Euphues and Philautus vie* for the love of Lucilla, realising finally that their friendship is more important; in the play Endymion Eumenides puts his love for his friend Endymion above his love for Semele. *to vie: competere (pronuncia: /vai/

The role of translations

 Translations were very important: Wyatt and Surrey had already rendered the petrarchian sonnet in English, but in the field of prose, translations of important works created the basic background for English prose style for the future generations.  Of particular importance were Norths translations of Plutarchs Lives, Chapmans translations of Homer in Lives, the seventeenth century.  Another key book was Sir Thomas Hobys translation of Baldassarre Castigliones treatise, The Courtierb (1508-1516), (1508-1516), which brought its analysis of the perfect renaissance courtier in Italy over England.

Civil war and Restoration

 The Stuart monarchs were certainly less successful than the Tudors. They were obstinate in their beliefs, almost foolish.  James I committed numerous errors which irritated Parliament and on the accession of Charles I in 1625 the main politcal issue of the period remained the struggle between the monarchy and Parliament.

The Petition of Right (1628)

 Charles I was even more arrogant and foolish than James I. He finally dissolved the Parliament. Unfortunately for him, he was forced to recall it for financial reasons and he had to agree to the Petition of Right in 1628, which gave Parliament, power over state finances and law.

The rebel Scottish army

 After a few years, Charles dissolved the parliament again and he made a success of it until 1637.  He tried to make the Scottish Church accept the same organization as the Anglican Church, introduced the new prayer book, but predictably the Scots arose against him, and in 1638 he had to face the rebel Scottish army.

 Charles who was now without Parliaments support had an inexperienced army and was forced to grant the Scots money. Thus he was obliged to convene* Parliament, which lost no time in imposing a new law saying that parliament had to meet at least once every three years.  *convene: convocare

The beginning of the civil war

The squabbles* wit Parliament continued and in 1642 Charles tried to arrest five MPs. He failed and was locked out of London, so he went to Nottingham and raised an army against Parliament: the civil war had begun *squabble: contesa

Cavaliers vs Roundheads
 Only the 10 % of the population was directly involved but the war had terrible consequences for all.  Most of the House of Lords supported Charles in control of the North and West; Parliament remained in control of London, East Anglia and the Southeast.  The two sides were popularly known as Cavaliers (the supporters of the Monarch) and Roundheads (the Puritan and parliamentary forces)

The Commonwealth
 Oliver Cromwell was the MP who commanded the parliamentarian army.  He captured the King in 1645, but there was indecision about what to do with him but at last he was beheaded in 1649. The next eleven years saw the rule of the Commonwealth* (1649-60) or new (1649republic. The Parliament was in control, but the real power lay with Cromwell and the army. Eventually the conflict between Cromwell and Parliament came to a head with Cromwell establishing the Protectorate (1653-58). This was essentially a monarchy by another (1653name, with Cromwell at its head. His rule was a time of rigid social and religious laws on radical Protestant lines. Cromwell had a bodyguard of 160 men during the Protectorate. In the end he was just as dictatorial and autocratic as Charles and James had been. He called Parliament when he needed money and dismissed it when it argued.  *In the 17th century the definition of "commonwealth" expanded from its original sense of "public welfare" to a republic or democratic state.

Cromwell as a dictator
 Unfortunately Cromwells government was too severe.  They abolished the House of Lords and the Anglican Church.  They enforced the strict observance of Puritan beliefs  He used the army to maintain law and order  There was to be no celebration of Christmas or Easter and no games on Sunday.  The results of the Commonwealth and the Protectorate confirmed in the English a hatred of military rule and the severe Puritanism associated with it. From this point on Parliament opposed Puritanism vigourously.

British Commonwealth - an association of nations consisting of the United Kingdom and several former British colonies that are now sovereign states but still pay allgiance to the British Crown. British Commonwealth includes 54 independent countries. It is often referred as British Commonwealth of Nations. Nations. British Commonwealth is presided over by the Queen of England, Queen Elizabeth II but it is an honorary gesture and doesnt imply any political superiority of England over other sovereign states. Queen is the nominal head of the Commonwealth where as the original powers were bestowed* over the Commonwealth Secretary-General who is also the Secretarychief executive of the organization. Members of the Commonwealth have their individual Heads of State. British Commonwealth offers unique opportunity to its member nations, where they interact with each other and come face to face with various cultures and traditions. The primary target Commonwealth is to create an ambiance of collaboration between member nations. It also promotes social equality, civil rights, and good supremacy within the nations. *To bestow: conferire

Members of the Commonwealth

 Among the most important:  Australia, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Cameroon, Ghana, India, Jamaica, Kenia, Maldives, Nigeria, Zambia,Canada, Southafrica, New Zealand, Malta,ect

Puritanism
  It was a religious reform movement which in the late 16th and 17th centuries sought to purify the Church of England of remnants of the Roman Catholic popery . Puritans became noted in the 17th century for a spirit of moral and religious earnestness that informed their whole way of life, and they sought through church reform to make their lifestyle the pattern for the whole nation. Their efforts to transform the nation contributed both to civil nation. war in England and to the founding of colonies in America as working models of the Puritan way of life. This naturally led to the rejection of much that was characteristic of Anglican ritual at the time, these being viewed as popish idlatry. In its place the Puritans emphasized preaching that drew on* images from scripture and from everyday experience. The moral and religious earnestness that was characteristic of Puritans was combined with the doctrine of predestination inherited from Calvinism, a sense of themselves as elect spirits chosen by God to live godly* lives both as individuals and as a community. *to draw on: attingere/ricorrere a *godly: devoto

 

The Restoration
 In 1660 Parliament offered to restore the monarchy if Charles would agree to concessions for religious toleration and a general amnesty. Charles was not as hardhard-headed as his father, and he agreed to the proposals. He returned to London on a wave of popular (1660support to be crowned Charles II (1660-85). The Restoration was notable for a relaxation of the strict Puritan morality of the previous decades. Theatre, sports, and dancing were revived. Charles' court was notable for its revelry* and licentiousness. While Charles was enjoying his new court, he was less than successful internationally.  *reverly: baldoria

Clarles II and religion

 Supporters of the Parliament in the Civil War were allowed to hold positions of responsibility under the restored monarchy, althought Parliament did not maintain its strenght.  Charles II allowed also both Catholic and Puritans monorities to exercise their faith freely.  Unfortunately the parliament, strongly Anglican, did not agree, and in fact passed a law in 1673 which prevented catholics from occupying public offices. This was intended to prevent Charles II from embracing the Catholic faith, to which he was generally attracted. attracted.

The Whigs and the Tories

 This was also the time of the genesis of the first political parties in Britain:  The Whigs*: the group of MPs who supported religious Whigs*: freedom and were against an absolute monarchy and a regular army  The Tories*: the group who opposed the Whigs, Tories*: believing in the authority of Church and Crown.  *whig: it was originally a term apllied to horse thieves and to suggest non conformity.  *tory: it was originally an Irish term linked to papist outlaws.

James II (1633-1701) (1633 Charles II died in 1685 leaving no heirs and his brother James II, a Catholic, succeded to the throne trying to restore the Catholic Church and removing the laws preventing Catholics from holding power.  Parliament resisted strongly because he had become more powerful than the King.  The situation came to a head when the king produced a catholic male heir in 1688.

William of Orange and the Glorious Revolution (1688)

 The tension exploded and the leading nobles invited William of Orange, a Protestant married to James daughter, Mary, to invade England in the so called Glorious Revolution.  William landed at Torbay in Devonshire with an army. James's forces, under John Churchill deserted him, and James fled* to France (1688).  There was some debate in England on how to transfer power; whether to recall James on strict conditions or under a regency, whether to depose him outright, or whether to treat his flight as an abdication. In 1689 William and Mary accepted the invitation of In Parliament to rule as joint sovereigns.*  *to flee, fled, fled: fuggire  *William died in 1702 and the crown passed to Marys sister, Anne, James IIs daughter), the last of Stuart dynasty

The Bill of Rights (1689)

 The Declaration of Rights and the Bill of Rights (1689) redefined the relationship between monarch and subjects and barred any future Catholic succession to the throne. throne.  The crown was forbidden to levy* taxation or maintain a standing army in peacetime without parliamentary consent.  The provisions of the Bill of Rights were, in effect, the conditions upon which the throne was offered to and accepted by William and Mary. These events were a milestone in the gradual process by which practical power shifted from the monarch to Parliament. Parliament.  The theoretical ascendancy of Parliament was never thereafter successfully challenged.  The final seal on this long series of struggles between Catholics and Protestant was the Act of Settlement in 1701 which ensured that only Protestants could inherit the crown.  *levy: riscuotere/imporre

Intellectual life: some features

      The publication in 1611 of the Authorized Version of the Bible*, which was Bible*, read and interpreted by many different people, led to the formation of a large number of new religious sects, such as the Baptists and the Quakers, who were later to be very important for their reforming work. The Pilgrim Fathers, a griou of Puritan settlers (coloni), sailed to America Fathers, in 1620 in order to achieve religious freedom and live according to their beliefs. Thei paved the way for the British domination of North America The new empiricism in science (the idea that scientific assertions must be tested by experiment) displaced medieval theology The Royal Society, an istitution encouraging scientific research and Society, progress, was founded by Charles II in 1660 (Isaac Newton was one of the mebers) The first newspapers began to appear. *The revised version of the Bible, now in general use wherever the English tongue is spoken, was executed by order of King James I, and was completed and published in the year 1611. it is also known as KJV (King James Version)

Poetry
 It cannot be denied that poetry was in decline after the Restoration but the genious of John Milton dominated the age.  Satire too became a popular mode; the aim of satire mode; was to make men laugh themselves out their follies and vices and this anticipated the explosion of satire in (1612eighteenth century (Samuel Butler (1612-1680) (Samuel Hudibras, produced Hudibras, a satirical treatment of figures and attitudes from the time of the Civil War)  John Dryden, apart from his contrubution to drama and Dryden, critics, also wrote extremely elegant verse and a satirical poem, Absalom and Achitophel. Achitophel.

John Milton (1608-1674) (1608 John Miltons father was a scrvener and made sure tha his son got the best education available. Johns father had been disinherited by his oww father when he became a Protestant  These two elements, the love for learning and strong religious beliefs, would mark beliefs, the life of the younger John.

 John Milton was born in London. At the age of twelve Milton was admitted to St Paul's School near his home. Five years later he entered Christ's College, Cambridge. While considering himself destined for the ministry, he began to write poetry in Latin, Italian, and English. Milton did not adjust to* university life. He was called, in scorn, "The Lady (because of his fair complexion, long hair, graceful elegance and high morals), and after starting a strong fight with his tutor, he was expelled for a term. On leaving Cambridge Milton had given up his original plan to become a priest.  *to adjust to: adattarsi

 He travelled in France and Italy in the late 1630s, meeting in Paris the jurist and theologian Hugo Grotius and the astronomer Galileo Galilei in Florence - there are references to Galileo's telescope in Paradise Lost. Lost. His conversation with the famous scientist Milton is recorded in his celebrated plea for a free speech and free discussion, AREOPAGITICA (1644), in which he stated that books "preserve as in a vial* the purest "preserve efficacy and extraction of that living intellect bred* in them."  *vial: fiala  *to breed, bred, bred

 Concerned with the Puritan cause, Milton published a series of pamphlets against episcopacy (1642), on divorce (1643), in defense of the liberty of the press (1644), and in support of the regicides (1649). He also served as the secretary for foreign languages in Cromwell's government. After the death of Charles I, Milton expressed in THE TENURE* OF KINGS AND MAGISTRATES (1649) the view that the people have the right to depose and punish tyrants.  *tenure: occupazione/diritto

 In 1651 Milton became blind but blindness helped him to stimulate his verbal richness. "He sacrificed his sight, and then he remembered his first desire, that of being a poet." After the Restoration of Charles II in 1660, Milton was arrested as a noted defender of the Commonwealth, but was soon released.  Meanwhile he became a relatively poor man.  Milton was married three times  Milton died on November 8, 1674. It has been claimed that Milton's grave was desecrated when the church was undergoing repairs. All the teeth and "a large quantity of the hair" were taken as souvenirs by grave robbers.

 Milton's achievement in the field of poetry was recognized after the appearance of Paradise Lost. Lost. Before it the writer himself had showed some doubt of the worth of his work.  The theme of Fall and expulsion from Eden had been in Milton's mind from the 1640s. His ambition was to compose an epic poem to rival the ancient poets, such as Homer and Virgil, whose grand vision in Aneid left traces in his work.

Paradise Lost 1667

 Paradise Lost is not easy to be read with its odd syntax, difficult vocabulary, and complex, but noble style.  It was originally published in 1667 (though written nearly ten years earlier) in ten books, with a total of over ten thousand individual lines of verse. A second edition followed in 1674, changed into twelve books (in the manner of the division of Virgil's Aeneid) with minor Aeneid) revisions throughout and a note on the versification; most of the poem was written while Milton was blind.

The two universes

 This work is heavily indebted to the classical epics and it is written in blank verse with a rich range of vocabulary.  This is an epic like no other because, besides telling the story of Adam and Eve and the Fall of man, it tells of the connection between human time (time from the creation of Adam) and the inifinite universe that existed before us.

Satan
 The character who connects the prehuman universe with our own one is Satan.  He is often considerd the real hero of Paradise Lost. Satan was one of the most important inhabitants of the prehuman universe. In fact, according to the poem the universe could have been represented like this: Heaven _________ Chaos - The upper of these two hemispheres of primeval infintity was the heaven, a limitless region of light and glory. God is surrounded by a vast population of beings called Angels, of whom Satan is was the greatest. Below Heaven there was Chaos a huge limitless ocean, an abyss of universal darkness and lifelessness.

This was the universe before God decided to make his Divine son, Jesus, as the Head and Lord of the Angels. Satan and his followers rebel against this decree of God and fight a great battle, but Jesus himself defeats Satan and his army. They are hurled* from Heaven and fall to a place that has been specially made to hold them: the hell. Heaven _______ Chaos _______ Hell Satan and the fallen angels spend nine days stupefied and stunned*. Once recovered from his fall Satan begins plotting his revenge against God. Having heard that God had decided to create a new being (man) Satan decides to destroy this new creation. He therefore flies from hell up through Chaos to ne newly created universe of Man. Here he plans the cottuption of Man and his venture is a success, or at least il will be a success until the Second Coming.    *to hurl: lanciare *stunned: intontito

Themes & Symbols

1)The Importance of Obedience to God  The first words of Paradise Lost state that the poems main theme will be Mans first Mans Disobedience. Disobedience. (BooK I, Line I)  In essence, Paradise Lost presents two moral paths that one can take after disobedience: the downward spiral of increasing sin and degradation, represented by Satan, and the road to redemption, represented by Adam and Eve.

To disobey / to repent
 While Adam and Eve are the first humans to disoby God, Satan is the first of all Gods creation to disobey. His decision to rebel comes only from himselfhe was himself not persuaded or provoked by others. Also, his others. decision to continue to disobey God after his fall into Hell ensures that God will not forgive him. Adam and Eve, on the other hand, decide to repent for their sins and seek forgiveness. Unlike Satan, Adam and Eve understand that their disobedience to God will be corrected through generations of toil* on Earth. This path is obviously the correct one to take: the visions in Books XI and XII demonstrate that obedience to God, even after repeated falls, can lead to humankinds salvation.  *toil: fatica/duro lavoro

2)The Hierarchical Nature of the Universe Paradise Lost is about hierarchy as much as it is about obedience. The layout of the universe universe with Heaven above, Hell below, and Earth in the middlepresents the universe as a middle hierarchy based on proximity to God and his grace. This spatial hierarchy leads to a social hierarchy of angels, humans, animals, and devils. To obey God is to respect this hierarchy.

4)The Fall as Partly Fortunate After he sees the vision of Christs redemption of humankind in Book XII, Adam refers to his own sin as a felix culpa or happy fault, suggesting that the fall of humankind, while originally seeming an unmitigated catastrophe, does in fact bring good with it. Adam and Eves disobedience allows God to show his mercy and temperance in their punishments and his eternal providence towards humankind. This display of love and compassion, given through the Sin, is a gift to humankind. Humankind must now experience pain and death, but humans can also experience mercy, salvation, and grace in ways they would not have been able to had they not disobeyed

 5) The Geography of the Universe  Milton divides the universe into four major regions: glorious Heaven, dreadful Hell, confusing Chaos, and a young and vulnerable Earth in between. Milton believes that any other information concerning the geography of the universe is unimportant. Milton acknowledges both the possibility that the sun revolves around the Earth and that the Earth revolves around the sun but it does not matter which revolves around which, demonstrating that Miltons cosmology is based on the religious message he wants to convey, rather than on the convey, findings of contemporaneous science or astronomy.

6) Conversation and Contemplation One common objection raised by readers of Paradise Lost is that the poem contains relatively little action. Milton sought to divert the readers attention from heroic battles and place it on the conversations and contemplations of his characters because conversation and contemplation were the two pursits that he believed were of fundamental importance for a moral person. The sharing of ideas allows two people to share and spread Gods message. Likewise, pondering God and his grace allows a person to become closer to God and more obedient.

From Paradise Lost (lines 1-16)

 Of Mans First Disobedience, and the Fruit Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal taste Brought Death into the World, and all our woe, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful Seat, Sing Heavnly Muse, that on the secret top Of Oreb*, or of Sinai, didst inspire That Shepherd, who first taught the chosen Seed, In the Beginning how the Heavns and Earth Rose out of Chaos: Or if Sion Hill * Delight thee more, and Siloas Brook* that flowd Fast by the Oracle of God; I thence* Invoke thy aid to my adventrous Song, That with no middle flight intends to soar* Above th Aonian Mount*, while it pursues Things unattempted yet in Prose or Rhyme. (I.116) (I.1 16)
   *oreb: where Moses heard the word of God. *Sion hill: hill in Jerusalem *Siloas Brook: a stream near the temple in Jerusalem (brook: ruscello) *thence: da l/ quindi *to soar: sollevarsi/salire *Aonian mount: the hill Helicon, home of the Muses

  

 With these lines, Milton begins Paradise Lost and lays the groundwork for his project, presenting his purpose, subject, aspirations, and need for heavenly guidance.  He invokes his muse, whom he identifies as the Holy Spirit. He asserts his hopes that his epic poem will surpass the other great epic poems written before, as he claims that his story is the most original and the most virtuous. He also asks his muse to fill his mind with divine knowledge so that he can share this knowledge with his readers.

Paradise regained (1671)

 Paradise Regained (four books) is his poem published in 1671. It is connected by name to his earlier and more famous epic poem Paradise Lost, with which it shares similar theological themes. It Lost, deals with the subject of the Temptation of Christ. According to the poet's conception, whereas Paradise was lost by the yielding*Adam and Eve to Satan's temptation, so it was regained by the resistance of the Son of God to the temptation of the same spirit.

 Satan is here represented not in the majestic lineaments of Paradise Lost, but as a cunning*, Lost, smooth, and dissembling creature, a Spirit unfortunate, as he describes himself.  *yielding: accomodante  *cunning: astuto  *smooth: liscio /raffinato