Methods of Data Collection

Damodar Suar, Ph.D. IIT Kharagpur

 Review of literature, hypothesis, research question, Development of measuring instrument, pre-test or pilot survey and then data collection Data: (1) Primary data are collected afresh and for the first time, first-hand data collection, compilation, analysis and publication of data by the researcher , personal and direct sources like observation, interview, PRA, experimentation, etc. (2) Secondary data are already collected and passed through statistical/qualitative process by someone and later on used by others, second hand data Source: Census, agency reports, CMIE, industry reports, statistical handbooks of States, etc. Census data primary for census authority and secondary for us, The data in hands of one person are primary and another secondary, difference in degree Both primary and secondary: Cross-sectional, longitudinal, panel data

Method
1. Documentary Method : written materials of importance, individual or agency views on certain issues: life histories, auto-biography, diaries, letters, proceedings of parliament, committees, courts, business and legal papers, official and non-official records, secondary source of data, doctrinal research in law (1)Published: available, census, CMIE, Annual reports of companies, government and non-governmental source (2)Unpublished: not available to everyone, records in form of files, proceedings of meetings, letters, defence treaties

2. Case Study
Qualitative method, narration as well as quantitative data, in-depth inquiry (collection of data, history, cause, mutual inter-relationships, remedies investigated, and fellow-up programs), dissimilar cases, sampling till new and different information forthcoming, more cases incase the reliability and validity, hypothesis/questionnaire formulation Unit: person, family, institution, cultural group, juvenile delinquency, community, organization, personal experience Chambers case in Bangladeshi: people in higher strata exploits those in lower strata, the incidence of made cow CCL case study of CSR Change management: competitive strategy eastern airways Content analysis of cases against themes and sub-themes

3. Observation
Systematic and deliberate study through senses (eyes/ears). Anthropologist: Malinowski (1) First hand observation, bias less; (2) focus on behavior currently happing/present, not on past or future, (3) method independent of the researched or respondents unlike questionnaire/ interview Whether chimpanzees have society? Human society marker: food, sleeping/eating together, communication, collective activities, South Africa, video recording and analysis housing, pattern of roads, time spent in different activities during harvesting, tribal dance Mentally handicapped, tribal, illiterates, children

 What should be observed? How the observation should be recorded? How the consistency and validity of data ensured? Simplicity, alertness, discipline, grater accuracy being acquainted with the situation, event, training enhances capability. All behavior cannot be observed: crowd, sexual behavior, strike, etc. Types: Participant: investigator participate in event, suspicion, explain purpose, rapport, permission Enable to experience the event and people, verify data obtained through other method, natural setting uncontrolled observation, contents of observation will go on changing, nothing has happened during participation

 Non-participant: Investigator does not interfere with the activity of observation, note taking two investigators, photography, Video recoding of the event/happening Disadvantage: Emotional involvement, Difficult to participate and observe simultaneously, may not get the full experience of event, becoming collie for one day, one may not get life-experience of collie, During observation, nothing significant may occur in accordance with research objective Clues to be effective observer: interest and methodical, time sampling (during discrete time units) and event sampling (beginning to end of the event)

4. Interview
A conversation between the respondent and the researcher face-to-face manner followed by note-taking, personal Types: (1) Free or unstructured: No direct and predetermined questions, narration of feelings and experiences, open-ended questions are asked, interviewer much freedom to ask, omit or ask supplementary questions, change sequence of questions, flexibility deter comparability against interviewers, interviewee leads Advantage: Go to depth, secondary source is not available, incidence described may not of interest to research, use in exploratory research, a orm of case study, pilot survey. Disadvantage: Time consuming, demand greater skills

 (2) Guided or Structured: Use interview guide/ schedule,

predetermined questions or points relate to main points of research, more close-ended questions, asking questions in form and order defined, Replies of are coded in defined responses, no more a real conversation, deep-probe not possible, use in descriptive studies, interviewer leads (3) Focused interview: focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its experiences, manner and sequence of questions decided and asked. Also, like unstructured interview (4) Clinical: broad, underlying feelings and experiences, interviewer discretion (5) Non-directive interview: like case study with human subjects, encourage respondents to talk about a topic with bare minimum of direct questioning

 (6) Computer assisted interview: Like structured interview, close-ended questions, only computer is used where the respondent will read the questions from computer screen and replies the respondent will decide mostly from predefined responses to a question, few open-ended where the respondent will write replies using computer, successful only in case of computer literates and the availability of technology. India people prefer interpersonal talk, response rate low in CAI (7) Telephonic interview: in developed counties, before interview appointments taken, quick, easy, cheaper, high rate of response, access to respondents otherwise not contacted, wider coverage of sample; Interview time short, 5 minutes, survey confined to people having telephone facilities, intense survey difficult, questions short, precise and seek for specific replies

 Advantage: depth probe, with skill overcome resistance of respondent, flexibility in asking questions, visual stimuli can be used, observation for verbal response, non-response low, language of questions in which respondent speak, supplementary information can collected, use field dairy, can used in case of illiterates who can speak but not write Disadvantage: expensive in wide dispersed areas, bias of interviewer and respondent, difficult to supervise and control, officials and employees approached, for large sample expensive, training to interviewer before interview, interview time when respondents available, rapport establishment with interviewees

 Prerequisites: interviewer selection, trained, briefed, honest, hardworking, sincere; field visit, supervision and occasional check; plan of action if interviewees refuse to participate Be courteous, friendly, conversational, unbiased, ensure confidentiality of responses Introduce oneself; information about project/research; establish rapport staying in village/organization; conduct meeting with villagers/employees; state the importance of the research topic for them; seek their participation in interview; do not discourage irrelevant answer, do not show surprise or disapproval of respondents answers Recoding of responses, closing interview, give thanks

5. Questionnaire
No face-to-face conversation in contrast to schedule, a questionnaire is either sent through e-mail, post, personally handed over to the person concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire within a fortnight/month or is collected personally. Instructions precede each set of questions, instructions are there how and where to respond. Schedule--questions too Questionnaire consists of a number of questions typed or printed in order (general, issues, management, sociodemography, large sample coverage) in a form. It is send/given to each sample respondent to write-down replies in spaces provided, questions affecting sentiments to be avoided

 Advantage: Low cost, free from bias of interviewer, adequate time given for well thought-out answer, large sample coverage, results dependable Disadvantage: return rate low, non-respondent bias, used in educated and cooperative respondents, in-built inflexibility, possibility of ambiguous/omission replies, the method is slower, Before full-scale administration, pre-test to know the weakness and modify/improve questionnaire, opening questions should arouse interest, attractive lay-out of the questionnaire Avoid questions that put stress on human memory, personal character, personal wealth but there is right to information as per GOI, wording, short and simple,

 Types of questions (1)Open-ended questions: broad without defined responses, free will of respondents (2) Close-ended 2.1 Dichotomous: responses confined two categories (yes/no, true/false), work like a check-list 2.2 Multiple choice: alternative answer listed 2.3 Ranking questions, coca cola, fantasy, spirit 2.4 Scaling (rating) questions: Likert-type, Semitic different, feeling, reliability, validity 2.5 Contextual questions: visual, cube in socioeconomic change, expenditure in 10 x10 square

 2.6 Check-list: many items, the number of items agreed by

respondent is his/her score 2.7 Weighted questions: Not aware, aware, critically aware 2.8: Behavioral inventories/instruments: intelligence, personality, aptitude, attitude, standard tests, Cross-culturally valid, used for applicant selection

6. Projective test For inferring underlying motives, needs, interests or

intentions, project his/her attitudes and feelings in conscious as well as in unconscious mind. Depth interview, stimuli are photograph, ink blots, pictures, incomplete sentences.

 Require skill for administering the test and analysis Word association test: As the interviewer reads words, what words frequently comes to the mind of respondents. marketing, the quality associated with a brand of product. The frequently reported words are probed. Sentence completion test: Incomplete sentences are given, subject is asked to fill the sentence. I feel so tense that ., multidimensional response, unconscious fear, anxiety, tension Situational test: A situation is given and the subject is asked what s/he will do if encounter the situation.

 Projective inventory: story is depicted, where two or three characters are interacting. Subject is asked to approve or disapprove certain actions of the character revealing her/his unconscious mind. Thematic apperception test: reveal emotion and perception seeing pictures. Two characters are interacting. 30+1 black card, subject asked to report what is happing seeing pictures revealing his/her needs and pressures operating on him/her. Rorschach test: 10 cards, ink blots symmetrical, subject what they see in inkblot, every time rotated 90 degree, response interpreted in the pre-determined psychological framework. Rosenzweig test: series of cartoons with words inserted in balloons. Subject put his word in empty balloon space, inference about attitude Picture arrangements: pictures are arranged to reveal sequence of an event, attitude

 Play technique: role play , reveal hostility,

dominance, sympathy, prejudice

Sociometry: mutual attractions and repulsions in

group. Content analysis: text analysis of narrations, descriptions, political speeches, ads, films, magazines, perception Selection of appropriate method: 1. nature, scope, objective of inquiry; method match with the type of inquiry, earlier research and reflective thinking 2. fund and time (internet survey vs. depth interview) 3. precision required In collection of statistical data commonsense is chief requisite and experience the chief teacher .

7. Experimental method
To test the impact of experimental manipulation (IV) on DV Experimental condition (+ IV) and control condition(IV=0) Control of extraneous variable Effects of drug doses, fertilizer effect , Hawthorne studies, Sheriff's auto kinetic effect, Asch experiment, quasi experiment, mood states on decision making under uncertainty and information processing All studies control condition is not required, each condition acts as a control against others

8. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Systematic, semi-structured approach and method of understanding and assessing rural realities with the participation of villagers in the eyes of villagers. Etic(outside professional), verbal, absolute measurement, individual unit, formal, extraction of information, lecturing , top-down approach, rigid and structured, more cost, and quantitative to emic, visual, comparison, informal, empowering, learning, down-top, semi-structured, cost-effective, qualitative approach (PRA). Activist participatory + Agroeco system + Applied anthropology + Field research in farming

Conventional method Timeline Seasonal calendar Venn(chapatti) diagram Matrix ranking Wealth ranking Mapping and modelling Transacts analysis New methods Force field analysis education, liquor consumption H form: evaluation of forestry

9. Focus group discussion

7-8 people related to the issue, stakeholders Board, unstructured, open-ended questions Discussion Unanimous decision transcribed, video recoding Content analysis

10. Action research

Kurt Lewin Living theory Reflection, Discovery, Measurable action, reciprocal relations. Follow effective action with quite reflection, From the quite reflection will come more even more affective action Peter F. Drucker Go to field, learn what is happening. Think what is to be done? Share your thinking with stakeholder, refine thinking, decide action, measure the outcome of action. Coach and French, Harwood manufacturing company; Hawthorne study, Western electric company Trade-off among cost, time, persons, discipline; decide the method

Thank you

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