Research designs

A framework for the collection and analysis of data

 In choice of design priority is given to following:

Expressing causal connection between variables Generalizing to larger groups of individuals than those actually forming part of investigation Understanding behavior and meaning of behavior in its specific social context Having a temporal appreciation of social phenomena and their interconnections

Criteria in Business Research

Reliability: whether the results of a study are repeatable Replication: replication is possible when researcher spell out the procedures in great detail Validity:
Measurement validity/ construct validity: whether or not a measure that is devised of a concept really does reflect the concept that it is supposed to be denoting Internal validity: (issue of causality) whether a conclusion that incorporates a causal relationship between two or more variables holds water External validity: whether the results of the study can be generalized beyond the specific research context

 Research projects have time horizons that may be a snapshot (cross-sectional) or continuous (longitudinal). In addition, they may be classified as exploratory, descriptive or explanatory (conclusive). Using multi-method approaches to research means that different purposes may be served. Another benefit of using more than one approach can allow you to confirm your results in a different way.

Exploratory research
Preliminary investigation that aims to develop initial hunches or insights to provide future direction of the research Example: despite healthy industry growth rate if sales decline Explore various reasons of declining sales:
Quality? Lack of motivation in sales force? Ineffective promotion? Increase in competition from online suppliers?

Conducting exploratory research

Key informant technique Focus group Analysis of secondary data Case study method Observational method

Descriptive research
Aims to describe Intends to generate data describing the composition and characteristics of relevant groups:
Customers Salespeople Organizations Market areas

Descriptive research design is used

To describe the characteristics of certain groups
Based on information gathered from known users of our particular product we might attempt to develop a profile of the average user with respect to income, gender, age, education level and so on.

To estimate the proportion of people in a specified population who behave in a certain way
To open shopping complex

To make specific predictions

Level of sales for each of the next five years

Descriptive research, according to Best (1981), can be distinguished form other forms of research on the basis of the following characteristics:
1. Descriptive research is nonexperimental in that it deals with relationships between nonmanipulated variables in a natural rather than artificial setting. Since the events or conditions have already occurred or exist, relevant variables are merely selected for an analysis of their relationships. 2. Descriptive research involves hypothesis formulation and testing. 3. Descriptive research uses logical methods of inductive and deductive reasoning in order to arrive at generalizations. 4. All of the variables and procedures used in descriptive studies are described as completely and accurately as possible so as to permit future replication. 5. Descriptive research often employs methods of randomization so that error can be estimated when inferring population characteristics from observations of samples.

D.R.: Cross sectional design

Collection of data on more than one case At a single point of time Quantitative or quantifiable data Two or more variables Examined to detect patterns of association

 Data collected at a single point of time

No pretest or post text data

Quantitative or quantifiable data

To establish variation between cases and examine association between variables it is necessary to have a systematic and standardized method of gauging data Quantification provides consistent benchmark

 Why more then one case?

Interested in variation Likely to encounter variation in all the variables in which they are interested Possible to make finer distinction between cases Requirements of sampling process are likely to necessitate larger numbers

 Patterns of association: possible to examine relationships between variables

No time ordering to the variables ( pre test/ post test) as data collected simultaneously Researcher does not manipulate the variables Variables are related but this relationship can not be ascertained as causal relationship These inferences rarely have the credibility of causal findings it can be replicated in most cases if the procedures are spelt by the researcher
Selecting respondents, Designing measures of concepts, Administration of research instruments, Analysis of data

Lacks internal validity (no causal relationship) External validity is strong (Sample is randomly selected)

Longitudinal design
Subjects are assessed at several different times Advantages
They provide a wealth of information that could not be obtained readily with other types of research designs. It tracks the same people, and therefore the differences observed in those people are less likely to be the result of cultural differences across generations It make observing changes more accurate and they are applied in various other fields.

Disadvantages
These studies are often expensive, difficult to conduct, and have lots of trouble without drop outs. They also will require more complex statistical analyses.

longitudinal study is a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same items over long periods of time often many decades. It is a type of observational study. Often used in psychology to study developmental trends across the life span In Sociology to study life events throughout lifetimes or generations. In Medicine, the design is used to uncover predictors of certain diseases. In Advertising, the design is used to identify the changes that advertising has produced in the attitudes and behaviors of those within the target audience who have seen the advertising campaign.

 Types of longitudinal studies include:

cohort studies: cohort studies sample a cohort, defined as a group experiencing some event (birth, marriage) in a selected time period, and studying them at intervals through time. panel studies: panel studies sample a crosssection, and survey it at (usually regular) intervals.

 In Phillips et al (BMJ 2001 Mar 31;322(7289):771), the researchers studied 3577 men born at the Helsinki University Central Hospital, Finland, during 1924-33. They collected data at birth on gestational age, birth weight, and head circumference. They also measured their weight at 15 years, and their marital status and socioeconomic status as adults. This longitudinal study came up with the surprising conclusion that men who were small at birth were less likely to be married as adults.

 In Kivipelto et al (BMJ 2001 Jun 16;322(7300):1447-51), the researchers re-contacted patients in 1998 who had originally be assessed as part of a different study in either 1972, 1977, 1982, or 1987. They assesses whether the patients had signs of Alzhiemers disease in 1998 and correlated this with their blood pressure and cholesterol measurements at the earlier time. This longitudinal study showed that high levels of systolic blood pressure and high levels of cholesterol at mid-life were associated with increased risk of Alzheimers disease later in life.

 The Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) is the worlds longest running household panel survey. The PSID is a longitudinal panel survey of United States families that measures economic, social, and health factors over the life course and across generations. Data have been collected from the same families and their descendants since 1968. The PSID gathers data describing circumstances of the family as a whole (e.g., type of housing) and data about particular persons in the family (e.g., health, earnings). While some information is collected about all individuals in the family, the greatest level of detail is ascertained for the adult(s) heading the family. The PSID has consistently achieved unprecedented response rates, and as a consequence of low attrition and the success in following young adults as they form their own families, the sample size has grown from 4,800 families in 1968 to more than 9,000 as of 2009. As of 2009, the PSID had collected information on more than 70,000 individuals spanning as many as 4 decades of their lives.

 The PSID collects data on a wide array of social, demographic, health, economic, geospatial and psychological data. As of 2009, the 75 minute interview collected data on: employment, earnings, income from all sources, expenditures covering 100% of total household spending, transfers, housing, education, geospatial data, health status, health behaviors, health insurance, early childhood and adult health conditions and their timing, emotional well-being, life satisfaction, mortality and cause of death, marriage and fertility, participation in government programs, financial distress including problems paying debt such as mortgages and foreclosure, vehicle ownership, wealth and pensions, and philanthropy. Many of these areas have been included in the instrument since 1968. Hundreds of additional variables that fall into other domains have been collected in various waves throughout the history of the PSID. No identifying information is distributed to data users and the identity of all respondents is held in strict confidence.

 More observational Less manipulative Do not detect accurate causal relationship

Experimental design
To conduct a true experiment, it is necessary to manipulate the independent variable in order to determine whether it does in fact have an influence on the dependent variable
Experimental subjects are allocated to two or more experimental groups each representing different types and levels of independent variable It is possible to establish how far differences between groups are responsible for variations in the level of dependent variable Manipulation entails intervening in a situation to determine which of two or more things happens to subjects

 Vast majority of independent variable in business researches cannot be manipulated

Effect of gender on work experiences Effects of economic environment (share prices, interest rates)on org. performance

 Laboratory experiment: contrived setting Field experiment: real life setting

Classic experimental design

Total population/sample divided into two groups: control group and experimental group Experimental group/ treatment group receives the treatment/intervention/manipulation of the independent variable Control group does not receive any manipulation Dependent variable is measured before and after the experimental manipulation

A purchase laboratory Participants are given money, script, or credit to purchase products in a simulated store. Researchers modify one variable at a time (for example; price, packaging, shelf location, size, or competitors offerings) and determine what effect that has on sales volume. Internet-based purchase labs (called virtual purchase labs) are becoming more common.

Quasi experimental design

Quasi-experimental designs control some, but not all, of the extraneous factors.
For example: A test market

A new product is typically introduced in a select number of cities. These cities must be representative of the overall national (or international) population. They should also be relatively unpolluted by outside influences (for example : media from other cities). The marketer has some control over the marketing mix variables, but almost no control over the broader business environment variables.
Competitors could change their prices during the test. Government could change the level of taxes. New competing products could be introduced. An advertising campaign could be initiated by competitors.

Any of these spurious variables could contaminate the test market.