Chapter4 Imperfections: Point and Line Defects

Dimensional Ranges for Different Classes of Defects

Stress Required to Shear a Crystal

Point Defects

Atomic point defects.

Two most common point defects in compounds: Schottky and Frenkel defects.

Point Defects

Interstices in FCC structure. (a) Octahedral void. (b) Tetrahedral void.

Interstices in the BCC structure. (a) Octahedral void. (b) Tetrahedral void.

Interstices in the HCP structure. (a) Octahedral void. (b) Tetrahedral void.

Point Defects

Formation of point defects by the annihilation of dislocations. (a) Row of vacancies. (b) Row of interstitials.

Aluminum Single Crystals

Stress-versus-strain curves for aluminum single crystals. The crystallographic orientation is shown in the stereographic triangle. (Adapted with permission from A. H. Cottrell, Phil. Mag., 46 (1955) p. 737.)

Radiation Damage

Seeger model of damage produced by irradiation. P indicates the position where the first knock-on terminates. (Reprinted with permission from A. Seeger, in Proc. Symp. Radiat. Damage Solids React., Vol. 1, (Vienna, IAEA, 1962) pp. 101, 105.)

Voids formed in nickel irradiated using 400 keV 14N2+ ions to a dose of 40 dpa at 500 C; notice the voids with polyhedral shape; dpa = displacements per atom. (Courtesy of L. J. Chen and A. J. Ardell.)

Radiation Damage

Stressstrain curves for irradiated and unirradiated Zircaloy. (Adapted with permission from J. T. A. Roberts, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., NS-22, (1975) 2219.)

Radiation Damage

Stress-free dilation in AISI 316 steel (20% cold worked). (Adapted with permission from J. T. A. Roberts, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., NS-22, (1975) 2219.)

Dependence of fast neutron-induced dilation in stainless steel (FeCrNi) as a function of Ni and Cr amounts. (Adapted with permission from W. B. Hillig, Science, 191 (1976) 733.)

Line Defects

(a) Rug with a fold.

Caterpillar with a hump.

Edge and Screw Dislocations

(a) Arrangement of atoms in an edge dislocation and the Burgers vector b that produces closure of circuit ABCDE. (b) Arrangement of atoms in screw dislocation with parking garage setup. (Notice car entering garage.)

Geometrical production of dislocations. (a) Perfect crystal. (b) Edge dislocation. (c) Screw dislocation.

Plastic Deformation

The plastic deformation of a crystal by the movement of a dislocation along a slip plane.

Dislocation Movements

Plastic deformation (shear) produced by the movement of (a) edge dislocation and (b) screw dislocation. Note d is the direction of dislocation motion; is the direction of dislocation line.

Mixed Dislocation

Mixed dislocation obtained from cut-and-shear operation; notice the angle between b and .

Dislocation in Metals

Dislocations in metals. (a) Titanium. (Courtesy of B. K. Kad.) (b) Silicon.

Dislocations in Al2O3 and TiC

Dislocations in (a) Al2O3 and (b) TiC. (Courtesy of J. C. LaSalvia.)

Dislocation in Molybdenum

Atomic resolution transmission electron micrograph of dislocation in molybdenum with a Burgers circuit around it. (Courtesy of R. Gronsky.)

Square Dislocation Loop

Elliptic Dislocation Loop

Elliptic dislocation loop. (a) Intermediate position. (b) Final (sheared) position. (c) TEM of shear loop in copper (Courtesy of F. Gregori and M. S. Schneider.)

Prismatic Loop

Prismatic loop produced by the introduction of a disk into metal. (a) Perspective view. (b) Section AAAA. (c) Section BBBB.

Movement of Dislocation

Slip produced by the movement of dislocation. (a) Positive and negative edge dislocations. (b) Positive and negative screw dislocations.

Expansion of a dislocation loop

Dislocations
Screw Dislocation Edge Dislocation

Simple models for (a) screw and (b) edge dislocations; the deformation fields can be obtained by cutting a slit longitudinally along a thick-walled cylinder and displacing the surface by b parallel (screw) and perpendicular (edge) to the dislocation line.

Stress Fields Around a Edge Dislocation

Stress fields around an edge dislocation. (The dislocation line is Ox3), (a) 11; (b) 22; (c) 33; (d) 12. (Adapted with permission from J. C. M. Li, in Electron Microscopy and Strength of Crystals, eds. G. Thomas and J. Washburn (New York: Interscience Publishers, 1963).)

Dislocation Array

Schematic representation of an idealized dislocation array (a) in two dimensions and (b) in three dimensions; note that dislocations on three perpendicular atomic planes define a volume V.

Curved dislocation

Dislocations in an FCC crystal

Peach-Koehler Equation

Decomposition of Dislocations

Decomposition of a d0 dislocation b1 into two partial dislocations b2 and b3, separated by a distance d0.

Stacking Fault

Short segment of stacking fault in AISI 304 stainless steel overlapping with coherent twin boundary. Differences in the nature of these defects are illustrated by fringe contrast differences. (b) Dislocations in AISI 304 stainless steel splitting into partials bounded by short stacking-fault region. Partials spacing marked as d. (Courtesy of L. E. Murr.)

Effects of Stacking-Fault Energy on Dislocation Substructure

Effect of stacking-fault energy on dislocation substructure. (a) High-stacking-fault-energy material (pure copper); (b) lower-stacking-fault-energy material (copper2 wt% aluminium). Both materials were laser-shock compressed with an initial pressure of 40 GPa and pulse duration of 3 ns. (Courtesy of M. S. Schneider.)

Frank or Sessile Dislocations

Frank or Sessile dislocations. (a) Intrinsic. (b) Extrinsic.

Dislocations

CottrellLomer lock.

Stairway dislocation.

Planes in HCP Structure

Basal, pyramidal, and prism plane in HCP structure.

Screw Dislocation

Edge Dislocation

General Form

Basal plane in Al2O3

Dislocations in Sapphire

(a) Dislocations, dipoles, and loops in sapphire. (b) Interaction between dislocations in sapphire. (From K. P. D. Lagerdorf, B. J. Pletka, T. E. Mitchell, and A. H. Heuer, Radiation Effects, 74 (1983) 87.)

Dislocations in Titanium Diboride

Hexagonal array of dislocations in titanium diboride. (Courtesy of D. A. Hoke and G. T. Gray.)

Stacking faults in GaP. (Courtesy of P. Pirouz.)

Homogeneous Nucleation of Dislocations

Homogeneous nucleation of dislocation in conventional deformation.

Grain Boundary Dislocations

Emission of dislocations from ledges in grain boundary, as observed in transmission electron microscopy during heating by electron beam. (Courtesy of L. E. Murr.)

Effect of Oxide Layer on the Tensile Properties of Niobium

Effect of oxide layer on the tensile properties of niobium. (Reprinted with permission from V. K. Sethi and R. Gibala, Scripta Met. 9 (1975) 527.)

Frank-Read Mechanism

Sequence of the formation of dislocation loop by the FrankRead mechanism.

Cross Slip

FrankRead source formed by cross-slip.

Epitaxial growth of thin film. (a) Substrate. (b) Start of epitaxial growth. (c) Formation of dislocations.

Pileup Dislocations

Pileup of dislocations against a barrier.

Pileup of dislocations against grain boundaries (or dislocations being emitted from grain-boundary sources?) in copper observed by etch pitting.

Dislocation Movements

(a) Edge dislocation traversing forest dislocation. (b) Screw dislocation traversing forest dislocations.

Intersection of Dislocation

(a) Kink and jog in edge dislocation. (b) Kink and jog in screw dislocation.

Loop being pinched out when jog is left behind by dislocation motion.

Orowans Equation

K ! k V bR

Peierls-Nabarro Stress

(a) Movement of dislocation away from its equilibrium position. (b) Variation of PeierlsNabarro stress with distance. (Reprinted with permission from H. Conrad, J. Metals, 16 (1964), 583.)

Seeger Kink Pair Mechanism

Overcoming of Peierls barrier by Seeger kink pair mechanism. (a) Original straight dislocation. (b) Dislocation with two kinks. (c) Kinks moving apart at velocity vk.

Temperature Effect on Youngs Modulus

Effect of temperature on Youngs modulus. (Adapted from J. B.Wachtman Jr.,W. E. Tefft, D. G. Lam, Jr., and C. S. Apstein, J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand., 64A (1960) 213; and J. Lemartre and J. L. Chaboche, Mechanics of Solid Materials, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 143.)

Flow Stress as a Function of Temperature

Flow stress as a function of temperature for (a) an idealized material, (b) BCC metals, and (c) FCC metals. Notice the greater temperature dependence for Ta and Fe (BCC).

Dislocations on Film-Substrate Interface

Stresses and dislocations generated at film-substrate interface; (a) film and substrate with different lattice parameters; (b) elastic (coherent) accommodation of strains by film; (c) elastic + dislocation (semi-coherent) accommodation of strains at a film thickness greater than hc.(Adapted from W. D. Nix, Met. Trans., 20A (1989)
2217.)

Critical Film Thickness vs. Atomic Fraction of Ge

Critical film thickness as a function of misfit strain for GexSi1-x film grown on Si substrate; the greater fraction Gex, the greater the misfit stain and the smaller hc. Predictions from van der Merwe Matthews theory; measurements from J. C. Bean, L. C. Feldman, A. T. Fiory, S. Nakahara, and I. K. Robinson, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 2 (1984) 436. (Adapted from W. D. Nix., Met. Trans., 20A (1989) 2216.)

Misfit Dislocation Generation

Mechanisms of misfit dislocation generation; (a) Freund mechanism in which a threading dislocation preexisting in substrate lays over interface creating misfit dislocation; (b) Nix mechanism, by which surface source creates half-loops that move toward
interface.