AN OVERVIEW

This lecture continues with the discussion on normative theories emphasizing on nonconsequentialist theories and several other ethical approaches. It elaborates on the application and criticism of these theories and consequences to moral decision making.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Students should be able to
y elaborate on Kant s ethics y discuss other nonconsequentialist normative theories,

such as duties, moral rights and prima facie principles

NONCONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES
(a) KANT S ETHICS
y Only when we act from duty that our actions have moral worth. y Good will

will

human capacity to act from principle.

y When we act out of feeling, inclination, or self-interest, our actions do not have moral worth.

Example: Act of shopkeeper returning the extra cash.

The Categorical Imperative

y An act is morally right only if we can will the principle

of our action to become a universal law. Example: A law that allowed promise breaking would contradict the very nature of a promise. A law that allowed lying would contradict the very nature of serious communication.

(i) Universal Acceptability

y The moral rules that we obey are not imposed on us from the outside.

They are self-imposed and self-recognized, fully internalised principles.

y To see whether a rule or principle is a moral law ask if the rule would

be acceptable to all rational beings acting rationally.

y The test of the morality of a rule is not whether people in fact accept it

but whether all rational beings thinking rationally would accept it regardless of whether they are the doers or the receivers of the actions.

(ii) Humanity as an End, Never as Merely a Means

y Every human being should treat everyone the way they themselves

would want to be treated.

Kant in an Organizational Context

Application for organization: (1) Categorical imperative provides firm rules to follow in moral decision-making, rules that do not depend on circumstances or results and do not permit individual exceptions. Example: Lying. Exposing uninformed workers to the risk of lung disease could not be justified to advance medical knowledge. (2) Kant introduces a humanistic dimension into business decisions business organizations involve human beings working to provide goods and services (3) It stresses the importance of motivation and of acting on principle. Sometimes when individuals and organizations believe that an action promotes not only their own interests but those of others as well, they are actually rationalizing doing what is best for themselves and only imagining that somehow it will promote happiness in general.

Critical Inquiries of Kant s Ethics

(1) What has moral worth?

y Kant s view is too restrictive - emphasize on the sense of duty.

Example: A clerk returns RM10.00 extra change to a customer.

y If motivated by self-interest, to show that he or she is honest No moral worth y If out of habit or sympathy y If out of a sense of duty

No moral worth

Has moral worth

(2)

Is the categorical imperative an adequate test of right?

y Kant said that a moral rule must function without exception. y Kant universalization formula can be interpreted flexibly enough to

meet commonsense objections. Example:

Never steal except starving Stealing is wrong EXCEPT when hungry is all right.

(3)

What does it mean to treat people as means?

y Individuals considered as ends not as means.

Example: Prostitution is immoral because, by selling their sexual services, prostitutes allow themselves to be treated as means. Anyone who work for a wage treated as a means

(b) PRIMA FACIE PRINCIPLES

y A prima facie obligation is an obligation that can be

overridden by a more important obligation. Example: Keeping of promises is morally important. However, under certain circumstances, for example, when a life is at stake it would be morally permissible to break a promise.

y Prima facie obligations could be divided into seven

basic types:
 Duties of fidelity  Duties of compensation (for previous wrongful acts)  Duties of gratitude  Duties of justice  Duty of beneficence (that is, to make conditions of

others better)  Duties of self-improvement  Duties not to injure others

(c) ASSISTING OTHERS

y We have a stronger duty not to violate people s right or

injure them than we do to assist people.

y Assisting others is good, such as volunteering at the

orphanage bring many children happiness but do we have time for this.

(d) MORAL RIGHTS

y A right is an entitlement to act or have others act in a certain way. Example: If you claim a right to drive, others have a duty to permit you to drive. y Moral rights, which are not the results of special relationship, are called human rights. y Characteristics of human rights: (1) Universal (2) Equal rights (3) Not transferable (4) Natural rights

Nonconsequentialism in an Organizational Context (1) Moral decision-making involves the weighing of different moral factors and considerations. (2) Acknowledges that the organization has its own legitimate goals to pursue there are limits to the demands of morality and an organization that fulfils its morally free to advance whatever ends it has. (3) Organization must consider carefully how its actions will impinge on the rights of individuals not just the rights of its members, such as stockholders and employees, but also the rights of others, such as consumers.

Critical Inquiries of Nonconsequentialism (1) How well justified are these nonconsequentialist principles and moral rights? (2) Can nonconsequentials satisfactorily handle conflicting rights and principles? Example: Medical care and taxes in a welfare state Limiting property rights

UTILITARIANISM ONCE MORE

Rule Utilitarianism
y Maintains that the proper principles of right and

wrong are those that would maximize happiness if society adopted them.
y The adoption of moral principles that guide individual

action.

MORAL DECISION MAKING: TOWARD A SYNTHESIS

Concerns common to most ethical systems: (a) Obligations
y Every significant human action personal and professional arises in the context of human relationships. y These relationships can be the source of specific duties and rights obligated to respect people s human rights

(b) Ideals
y An ideal is some morally important goal, virtue, or

notion of excellence worth striving for.

y Different cultures impart different ideals

Example: tolerance, loyalty, fairness (c) Effects of actions

y When reflecting on a possible course of action, one

needs to take into account its likely results.

y Guidelines when handling cases of conflicting

obligations, ideals, and effects: (1) When two or more moral obligations conflict, choose the stronger one. (2) When two or more ideals conflict, honor the more important one. (3) When rival actions will have different results, choose the action that produces the greater good.

y Discussion Questions
(1) (2) (a) (b) Discuss briefly Kant s Categorical Imperative.

What do you understand about Kant s Ethics? Discuss the application of Kant s for organization and the weaknesses of this theory. Illustrate your answer with examples. In determining the rightness of a moral act, one has to consider the theory of utilitarianism and Kant s theory of Categorical Imperative. Discuss these two theories together with the criticisms. Discuss the application of Kant s Categorical Imperative in the organizational context.

(3)

(4)

(5) (a)

Besides Kant s Ethics, the other nonconsequentialist approaches also have important implications for moral decision-making in business and non business organizations. Discuss these implications with regard to the respective nonconsequentialists. Elaborate on the criticisms of nonconsequentialism approaches. A clerical worker in the personnel department learns that her company has authorized hirings that violate the firm s antinepotism rules and neglect its affirmative action commitments. What should she do about it? Discuss the conflicting obligations, ideals and effects the clerical worker should take into considertation when making a sound moral decision to promote society s well-being. How would you argue the conflicting decisions undertake by the clerical worker from the viewpoint of prudential reason and moral reason?

(b) (6)

(a)

(b)