Chapter 1: Mechanical Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: Normalized force and displacements. What are they? Why not use load and deformation?
Engineering : W e ! Fi / A0 True : W T ! Fi / Ai  Ie ! (" /" 0 IT ! ln(" f /" 0 )

Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Young' s Modulus : E [GPa] 

Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations cause permanent deformation? What materials are most resistant to permanent deformation?
Yield Strength : W YS [GPa] ( permanent deformation) Ulitmate Tensile Strength : W TS [GPa] ( fracture)

Toughness and ductility: What are they and how do we measure them?

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials
D.D. Johnson 2005

Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, W: Shear stress, X:

Ft
Area, A Area, A

Ft

F Fs

Ft W! Ao

Ft

Fs Fs X! Ao
Stress has units: N/m2 (or lb/in2 )

Ft

original area before loading

Adapted from Ashby, Eng. Matls 1.

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

D.D. Johnson 2005

Common States of Stress

Simple tension: cable

F F W! W Ao M

Ao = cross sectional Area (when unloaded)

W
Ski lift
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Simple shear: drive shaft

Ac M

Fs

Ao
Fs X ! Ao

2R

Note: X = M/AcR here.

From Callister, Intro to Eng. Matls., 6Ed

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

D.D. Johnson 2005

Common States of Stress

Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Balanced Rock, Arches National Park

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F W! Ao

Note: compressive structure member (W < 0 here).

From Callister, Intro to Eng. Matls., 6Ed

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

D.D. Johnson 2005

Common States of Stress

Bi-axial tension: Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Fish under water

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

WU > 0 Wz > 0

W h< 0
From Callister, Intro to Eng. Matls., 6Ed
D.D. Johnson 2005

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Engineering Strain
Tensile strain: H/2 Lateral (width) strain:

H I ! Lo
Shear strain: HL/2

wo

Lo
H/2 HL/2

HL IL ! wo

U/2 K = tan U U/2

Strain is always dimensionless.
From Callister, Intro to Eng. Matls., 6Ed
D.D. Johnson 2005

T/2 - U T/2

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Strain Testing
Tensile specimen
Adapted from Fig. 6.2, Callister 6e.

Tensile test machine

load cell

Often 12.8 mm x 60 mm extensometer specimen

gauge (portion of sample with = length reduced cross section)

moving cross head

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 6e.

Other types:
-compression: brittle materials (e.g., concrete) From Callister, -torsion: cylindrical tubes, shafts. Intro to Eng. Matls., 6Ed
MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials
D.D. Johnson 2005

Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load
bonds stretch return to initial

3. Unload

H F
Elastic means reversible!

Linearelastic Non-Linearelastic

H
MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

From Callister, Intro to Eng. Matls., 6Ed

D.D. Johnson 2005

Plastic Deformation of Metals

1. Initial 2. Small load bonds stretch & planes shear 3. Unload planes still sheared

Helastic + plastic

Hplastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent!
linear elastic linear elastic

Hplastic Helastic

H
From Callister, Intro to Eng. Matls., 6Ed

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

D.D. Johnson 2005

Linear Elasticity
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

Hooke's Law: W = E I

Units: E: [GPa] or [psi]

F
W E 1 I
Linearelastic

F
simple tension test
MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

D.D. Johnson 2005

Youngs Modulus, E
Metals Alloys
1200 1000 800 600 400

Graphite Composites Ceramics Polymers /fibers Semicond

Diamond

E(GPa)

200 100 80 60 40

Tungsten Molybdenum Steel, Ni Tantalum Platinum Cu alloys Zinc, Ti Silver, Gold Aluminum Magnesium, Tin

Si carbide Al oxide Si nitride Si crystal

<100> <111>

Carbon fibers only

CFRE(|| fibers)*
Aramid fibers only

Eceramics > Emetals >> Epolymers

Based on data in Table B2, Callister 6e. Composite data based on reinforced epoxy with 60 vol% of aligned carbon (CFRE), aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE) fibers.

Glass-soda Concrete

AFRE(|| fibers)*
Glass fibers only

GFRE(|| fibers)* GFRE* Graphite CFRE* GFRE( fibers)* CFRE( fibers)* AFRE( fibers)*

109 Pa

20 10 8 6 4 2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

Polyester PET PS PC PP HDPE PTFE LDPE

Epoxy only

Wood( grain)

From Callister, Intro to Eng. Matls., 6Ed

D.D. Johnson 2005

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Plastic Deformation
(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test:

tensile stress, W
Elastic+Plastic at larger stress

Elastic initially
permanent (plastic) after load is removed

Ip

engineering strain, I
plastic strain
From Callister, Intro to Eng. Matls., 6Ed
D.D. Johnson 2005

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Yield Strength, WYS

Stress where noticeable plastic deformation occurs. when Ip = 0.002
tensile stress, W

For metals agreed upon 0.2%

Wy

Elastic recovery

engineering strain, I

Ip = 0.002
MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials
D.D. Johnson 2005

Polymers: Tangent and Secant Modulus

Tangent Modulus is experienced in service. Secant Modulus is effective modulus at 2% strain. Modulus of polymer changes with time and strain-rate. - must report strain-rate dI/dt for polymers. - must report fracture strain If before fracture.
initial E

Stress (MPa)
secant E tangent E

%strain
1 2 3 4 5 ..
D.D. Johnson 2005

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Compare Yield Strength, WYS

Metals/ Alloys Graphite/ Ceramics/ Polymers Semicond Composites/ fibers 2000
Steel (4140)qt in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Yield strength, Wy (MPa)

700 600 500 400 300 200

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)a W (pure) Cu (71500)cw Mo (pure) Steel (4140)a Steel (1020)cd Al (6061)ag Steel (1020)hr Ti (pure)a Ta (pure) Cu (71500)hr

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

1000

Wy(ceramics) >>Wy(metals) >> Wy(polymers)

Room T values
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e. a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered
From Callister, Intro to Eng. Matls., 6Ed
D.D. Johnson 2005

100 70 60 50 40 30 20
Tin (pure) Al (6061)a

Hard to measure ,

dry

PC Nylon 6,6 PET PVC humid PP HDPE

LDPE

10

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Hard to measure,

(Ultimate) Tensile Strength, WTS

Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.

TS engineering stress

Necking
Adapted from Fig. 6.11, Callister 6e.

Typical response of a metal

Uniform strain, Iu

strain
Metals: occurs when necking starts. Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts. Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break.
MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials
D.D. Johnson 2005

Compare Tensile Strength, WTS

Metals/ Alloys 5000 Graphite/ Ceramics/ Polymers Semicond Composites/ fibers
C fibers Aramid fib E-glass fib Steel (4140)qt Diamond W (pure) Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)a Steel (4140)a Si nitride Cu (71500)cw hr Cu (71500) Al oxide Steel (1020) ag Al (6061) Ti (pure)a Ta (pure) Al (6061)a Si crystal
<100>

Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

3000 2000 1000

AFRE(|| fiber) GFRE(|| fiber) CFRE(|| fiber)

300 200 100 40 30 20 10

Glass-soda Concrete Graphite

Nylon 6,6 PC PET PVC PP HDPE LDPE

wood(|| fiber) GFRE( fiber) CFRE( fiber) AFRE( fiber)

TS(ceram) ~TS(met) ~ TS(comp) >> TS(poly) Room T values

wood(

fiber)

Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e.

D.D. Johnson 2005

1
MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Ductility or %EL
L f  Lo x100 Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL ! Lo
Engineering tensile stress, W
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, Callister 6e.

smaller %EL (brittle if %EL<5%) larger %EL (ductile if %EL>5%)

Lo

Ao

Af

Lf

Engineering tensile strain, I

Another ductility measure:

%AR !

Ao  A f x100 Ao

Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable. - Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume. From Callister, - %AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck. Intro to Eng. Matls., 6Ed
MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials
D.D. Johnson 2005

Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material, or absorb energy to fracture. Approximate as area under the stress-strain curve.
Engineering tensile stress, W
smaller toughness (ceramics) larger toughness (metals, PMCs)
From Callister, Intro to Eng. Matls., 6Ed

smaller toughnessunreinforced polymers

Recoverable energy (area under elastic portion of stress-strain curve)

Engineering tensile strain, I

Resilience is capacity to absorb energy when deformed elastically and recover all energy when unloaded (=W2YS/2E).
MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials
D.D. Johnson 2005

Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface. Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression. --better wear properties.
e.g., 10mm sphere apply known force (1 to 1000g) measure size of indent after removing load

D
most plastics brasses Al alloys

d
easy to machine steels file hard

Smaller indents mean larger hardness.

cutting tools nitrided steels diamond

increasing hardness
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials
D.D. Johnson 2005

Hardening
An increase in Wy due to plastic deformation.

Wy 1 Wy

large hardening small hardening

unloa d
reload
From Callister, Intro to Eng. Matls., 6Ed

I
Curve fit to the stress-strain response after YS: WT ! C IT
true stress (F/A)

hardening exponent: n=0.15 (some steels) to n=0.5 (some copper) true strain: ln(L/L o)
D.D. Johnson 2005

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Linear Elasticity: Possion Effect

Hooke's Law: W = E I Poisson's ratio, R:
width strain (w /w IL R ! ! ! axial strain I (" /"  metals: R ~ 0.33 ceramics: ~0.25 polymers: ~0.40

W E 1
Linearelastic

F
I

IL I -R 1 F
simple tension test

Units: E: [GPa] or [psi] R: dimensionless

Why does R have minus sign?

D.D. Johnson 2005

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Poisson Ratio
Poisson Ratio has a range 1 e R e 1/2 Look at extremes No change in aspect ratio:  /w ! (" /" (w
(w /w R ! ! 1 (" /" 

Volume (V = AL) remains constant:


Hence, (V = (L (A+A (L) = 0. So,

(V =0.

(A / A ! (L /L

In terms of width, A = w2, then (A/A = 2 w (w/w2 = 2(w/w = (L/L. Hence,

(w /w R ! ! (" /" 

( (" /") (" /" ! 1/2

1 2 

Incompressible solid. Water (almost).

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

D.D. Johnson 2005

Poisson Ratio: materials specific

Metals:Ir W 0.26 Ni 0.29 Cu 0.31 Al 0.34 Ag 0.34 Au 0.38 0.42

generic value ~ 1/3

Solid Argon: 0.25 Covalent Solids: Ionic Solids: MgO Si 0.27 0.19 Ge 0.28 Al2O3 0.23 TiC 0.19

generic value ~ 1/4

Silica Glass: 0.20 Polymers: Network (Bakelite) 0.49 Elastomer: Chain (PE) 0.40 (Natural) 0.49

Hard Rubber (Ebonite) 0.39

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

D.D. Johnson 2005

Example: Hookes Law

Hooke's Law: W = E I
Copper sample (305 mm long) is pulled in tension with stress of 276 MPa. If deformation is elastic, what is elongation? For Cu, E = 110 GPa.

("  W" 0 W ! EI ! E   (" ! E " 0  (276MPa)(305mm) (" ! ! 0.77mm 110x10 3 MPa 

F
simple tension test

Hookes law involves axial (parallel to applied tensile load) elastic deformation.

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

D.D. Johnson 2005

Example: Poisson Effect

Tensile stress is applied along cylindrical brass rod (10 mm diameter). Poisson ratio is R = 0.34 and E = 97 GPa. Determine load needed for 2.5x103 mm change in diameter if the deformation is entirely elastic?

Width strain: (note reduction in diameter) Ix= (d/d = (2.5x103 mm)/(10 mm) = 2.5x104 Axial strain: Given Poisson ratio Iz= Ix/R = (2.5x104)/0.34 = +7.35x104 Axial Stress: Wz = EIz = (97x103 MPa)(7.35x104) = 71.3 MPa.

F
simple tension test

Required Load: F = WzA0 = (71.3 MPa)T(5 mm)2 = 5600 N.

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

D.D. Johnson 2005

Complex States of Stress in 3D

There are 3 principal components of stress and strain. For linear elastic, isotropic case, use linear superposition. Strain || to load by Hookes Law: Ii=Wi/E, i=1,2,3 (or x,y,z). Strain B to load governed by Poisson effect: Iwidth = RIaxial.
stress strain

W1 W1/E -RW1/E -RW1/E

W2 -RW2/E W2/E -RW2/E

W3 -RW3/E -RW3/E W3/E

Total Strain in x in y in z

I1 I2 I3

In x-direction, the total linear strain is:

I1 ! 1 {W1  R (W 2  W 3 )} or E 1 {(1 R )W1  R (W1  W 2  W 3 )} E
D.D. Johnson 2005

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Complex State of Stress and Strain in 3-D Solid

Hookes Law and Poisson effect gives total linear strain:

1 {W 1  R (W 2  W 3 )} or E 1 I1 ! {(1 R )W 1  R (W 1  W 2  W 3 )} E I1 !
Is there something important about Trace of W (Tr W)?


For uniaxial tension test W1= W2 =0, so I3= W3/E and I1=I2= RI3.

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

D.D. Johnson 2005

Complex State of Stress and Strain in 3-D Solid

Hydrostatic Pressure:

W1  W 2  W 3 TrW P ! W Hyd ! ! 3 3 1 I1 ! {(1 R )W1  3RP} E


For volume (V=l1l2l3) strain, (V/V = I1+ I2+ I3 = (1-2R)W3/E So (V/V = 3(1-2R)P/E. Bulk Modulus, K: P = K (V/V so K = 3(1-2R)/E

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

D.D. Johnson 2005

Other Elastic Properties

Elastic Shear modulus, G:

X 1

M
G K
simple torsion test

X=GK
Elastic Bulk modulus, K:

M
P -K (V P Vo 1

P P
pressure test: Init. vol =Vo. Vol chg. = (V
From Callister, Intro to Eng. Matls., 6Ed

(V P= -K Vo

Special relations for isotropic materials: E E G! K! 2(1  R) 3(1  2R)

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

D.D. Johnson 2005

Using Work-Hardening
Influence of cold working on low-carbon steel. 2nd drawn 1st drawn Undrawn wire

Processing: Forging, Rolling, Extrusion, Drawing, Each draw of the wire decreases ductility, increases YS. Use drawing to strengthen and thin aluminum soda can.
MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials
D.D. Johnson 2005

Design Safety Factors

Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit. Factor of safety, N Often N is between 1.2 and 4 Wy W working ! N Ex: Calculate diameter, d, to ensure that no yielding occurs
in the 1045 carbon steel rod. Use safety factor of 5.

d W working ! 220, 000N   T d2 / 4    5 Wy N

1045 plain carbon steel: Wy=310MPa TS=565MPa F = 220,000N
D.D. Johnson 2005

Lo

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent measures of load and displacement, respectively. Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often shows a linear relation between stress and strain. To minimize deformation, select a material with a large elastic modulus (E or G). Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive) uniaxial stress reaches Wy. Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of material. Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

MatSE 406: Thermal and Mechanical Behavior of Materials

D.D. Johnson 2005