Affinity Diagram

What is it?
Organized output from brainstorming session. A tool to generate, organize, and consolidate information. A tool that helps an improvement team to develop its own system of thought concerning an issue.

Affinity Diagram
When is it used? Answer yes to the following: Is the problem (or issue) complex and hard to understand? Is the problem uncertain, disorganized, or overwhelming? Does the problem require the involvement and support of a group?

Affinity Diagram
How is it made? Choose a group leader. State the issue or problem. Brainstorm and record ideas. Move the cards into like piles. Name each group with a header card. Draw the affinity diagram. Discuss the piles.

Affinity Diagram
Remember
Helps a team analyze a complex problem. Can further analyze by making a relations diagram.

Affinity Diagram
Getting the most
Use with other planning tools such as a relations diagram. Helps identify the area that may be most important. Use to break old thought pattern.

Attributes Charts
What are they?
Control charts used to monitor attributes data. Data is counted, not measured. Data is collected on certain characteristics that have been operationally defined.

Attributes Charts
What kinds are there? Nonconforming - Ex: # failing students * np - number of sample failures. * p - proportion of sample failures. Nonconformities - Ex: # discipline problems * c - number of occurrences per subgroup * u - number of occurrences per unit.

np Control Chart
What is it? An attributes control chart that shows how a system changes over time. Measured by the number of nonconforming items produced. Helps minimize changes of overcontrol or undercontrol. Used to assess stability and monitor improvement.

np Control Chart
When is it used? Answer yes to all of the following: 1. Do you need to assess system stability?
2. Is the data the number of noncomforming items per subgroup. 3. Are all subgroups the same size? 4. Can there be only two outcomes to any given check? 5. Has the characteristic been operationally defined prior to data collection? 6. Is the time order of subgroups preserved?

np Control Chart
How is it made? 1. Complete the header information.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Record the data. Calculate the average number (np). Calculate the control limits. Determine the scaling for the chart. Draw the center line and control limits. Plot the values on the chart. Interpret the control chart.

np Control Chart
Remember It records the number of nonconforming items per subgroup The subgroups must all be the same size. The characteristic being charted must be operationally defined prior to data collection.

np Control Chart
Getting the most * Use control charts for different purposes: * Assess system stability. * As a tool to stratify data. * Assess improvement theories. * Interpret the data. * Monitor the data following standardization.

np Control Chart
What is it?
An attributes control chart that shows how a system changes over time. Measured by the proportion of nonconforming items produced. A tool to help minimize the chance of overcontrol or undercontrol. Used to assess stability and monitor improvement.

p Control Chart
When is it used? Answer yes to the following: 1. Do you need to assess system stability?
2. Is the data composed of counts that can be converted to proportions? 3. Can there be only two outcomes to any given check? 4. Has the characteristic being charted been operationally defined prior to data collection? 5. Is the time order of subgroups preserved?

p Control Chart
How is it made? 1. Complete the header information.
2. Record the data. 3. Calculate the proportion for each subgroup. 4. Calculate the average proportion (p). 5. Calculate the control limits. a. Calculate the average subgroup size (n). b. Determine the subgroup size limits.

p Control Chart
How is it made? (cont.)
5. Calculate the control limits (cont.) c. Calculate the control limits for all the data. d. Calculate the control limits for subgroups that vary excessively. 6. Determine the scaling for the chart. 7. Draw the center line and control limits. 8. Plot the values on the chart. 9. Interpret the control chart.

p Control Chart
Remember It records the proportion of nonconforming items per subgroup. The subgroup size can vary. The characteristic being charted must be operationally defined prior to data collection.

p Control Chart
Getting the most Use control charts for different purposes Assess system stability. As a tool to stratify data. Assess improvement theories. Interpretation of the data. Monitoring the data following standardization.

p Control Chart
What is it? An attributes control chart that shows how a system changes over time. Measured by the number of nonconformities per subgroup produced. A tool to help minimize the chance of overcontrol or undercontrol. Used to assess stability and monitor improvement.

c Control Chart
When is it used?
Answer yes to all of the following: 1. Do you need to assess system stability? 2. Is the data the number of nonconformities per subgroup. 3. Is the subgroup size the same for all subgroups? 4. Have the possible nonconformities been operationally defined prior to data collection? 5. Is the time order of subgroups preserved?

c Control Chart
How is it made?
Complete the header information. Record the data. Calculate the average number ( c ). Calculate the control limits. Determine the scaling for the chart. Draw the center line and control limits. Plot the values on the chart. Interpret the control chart.

c Control Chart
Remember A c-chart records the number of nonconformities per subgroup. The characteristics being counted must be operationally defined before data collection begins. The subgroup size must remain the same for all subgroups.

c Control Chart
Getting the most Use control charts for different purposes: * Assess system stability. * As a tool to stratify data. * Asses improvement theories. * Interpret the data. * Monitor the data following standardization.

u Control Chart
What is it?
An attributes control chart that shows how a system changes over time. Measured by the number of nonconformities per subgroup produced. A tool to help minimize the chance of overcontrol or undercontrol. Used to assess stability and monitor improvement.

u Control Chart
When is it used? Answer yes to all of the following: 1. Do you need to assess system stability?
2. Is the data the number of nonconformities per subgroup? 3. Have the possible nonconformities been operationally defined prior to data collection? 4. Is the time order of subgroups preserved?

u Control Chart
How is it made? 1. Complete the header information.
2. Record the data. 3. Calculate the number of nonconformities per unit (u) for each subgroup. 4. Calculate the average number (u). 5. Calculate the control limits. a. Calculate the average subgroup size (n). b. Determine the subgroup size limits.

u Control Chart
How is it made? (cont.)
5. Calculate the control limits (cont.) c. Calculate the control limits for all data. d. Calculate the control limits for subgroups that vary excessively 6. Determine the scaling for the chart. 7. Draw the center line and control limits. 8. Plot the values on the chart. 9. Interpret the control chart.

u Control Chart
Remember A u-chart records the number of nonconformities per subgroup. The characteristics being counted must be operationally defined before data collection begins. The subgroup size can vary.

u Control Chart
Getting the most Use control charts for different purposes: Assess system stability. As a tool to stratify data. Assess improvement theories. Interpret the data. Monitor the data following standardization.

Brainstorming
What is it? The free, uninhibited generation of ideas, usually in a group setting. A process for generating many ideas through group dynamics. A tool used by improvement teams in many different settings when working on a project.

Brainstorming
When is it used? To solicit ideas from a group on a given topic such as project selection or problem causes. To generate improvement actions.

Brainstorming
Goals To generate a wide variety and extensive number of ideas. Everyone on the team becomes involved in the problem solving process. To insure that nothing is overlooked. To create an atmosphere of creativity and openness.

Brainstorming
Rules No criticism allowed. Each person has an equal opportunity to express ideas. Quantity over quality. Piggybacking or hitchhiking is encouraged.

Brainstorming
How is it made? 1. Select a recorder and group facilitator. 2. Generate ideas. 3. Record the ideas. 4. (Optional) Organize results using Affinity or C & E Diagrams or Nominal Group Technique.

Cause & Effect Diagram

What is it?
A picture of various system elements that may contribute to the problem. Helps to identify possible causes of a specified problem (or effect). Useful in manufacturing, service, and administrative applications. Used by an improvement team to find special and common causes of variation and to analyze causes. Also called Ishikawa Diagram or Fishbone Diagram.

Cause & Effect Diagram

When is it used? Answer yes to one or both of these questions: 1. Do root causes of a problem need to be identified? 2. Are there ideas and/or opinions about the causes of a problem?

Cause & Effect Diagram

How is it made? 1. Identify the problem. 2. Record the problem statement. 3. Draw and label the main bones. 4. Brainstorm for problem causes. 5. Identify the most likely cause candidates.

Cause & Effect Diagram

Remember A graphic way to display a lot of cause information in a compact space Helps teams move from opinions to theories that can be tested Is critical to understanding how to improve systems May be difficult to make

Cause & Effect Diagram

Getting the most
Once causes have been selected from the diagram: verify that causes produce the effect expected Verify that the effect is not produced in the absence of these causes Can be done at multiple levels in search of root cause

Cause & Effect Diagram

Variations Process Analysis C & E Diagram Negative C & E Diagram

Control Chart Interpretation

What is it?
The process of analyzing the chart to understand the performance of the system being studied A way to help people who are managing systems make the right decisions about how to control and run them A tool to help minimize the chance of making two mistakes when working on a system: overcontrol or undercontrol

Control Chart Interpretation

When is it used? Interpret every chart Re-interpret with every new point

Control Chart Interpretation

How to interpret control charts
1. Look for unstable conditions - Any point outside control limits - Run of seven points - Nonrandom patterns 2. Declare the system in control (stable) or out of control (unstable) 3. Respond to the information on the chart.

Control Chart Interpretation

Remember
- Interpret charts after calculating control limits. - It is a way of reading signals in charts. - It is a mental process of questions and pattern recognition - Out of control does not always mean trouble. - Basic rules for recognizing unstable conditions. - Any point outside control limits. - Run of seven points. - Nonrandom patterns.

Control Chart Interpretation

Getting the most Variables charts - Central location and variability
- Variability first - X-MR points are not averages or medians

Attributes charts - Note direction of point movement

- Interpret p- and u-charts with variable limits in usual way

Control Chart Interpretation

Getting the Most(cont.) Advanced rules - Trends - Clusters - Sawtooth - Two of three beyond 2-sigma - Four of five beyond 1-sigma

Check Sheet
What is it? - A tool for collecting data in a consistent form. - Provides an easy, structured way of recording data as it is collected - Assures data will be recorded in similar manner

Check Sheet
What is it? (cont.) - Formats can be designed for various needs - Most commonly arranged in columns or matrix - Used by improvement teams to gather data

Check Sheet
When is it used? Answer yes to all of the following: 1. Is data to be collected? 2. Is an organized format for collecting data needed. 3. Will different people be collecting or using the data for study or project?

How is it made? 1. List the data needs. 2. Decide on format. 3. Design and produce form. 4. Review design. 5. Test the form.

Check Sheet
Remember - A check sheet provides a format for collecting data - A good design increases the efficiency of data use. - The check sheet is designed to make data gathering and analysis easier. - There are unlimited format designs.

Flow Chart
What is it?
- A picture of any process - Drawn with standard symbols representing different types of activities - Style and depth chosen should be consistent and useful - Different styles available, 2 covered - Deployment - Process

Flow Chart
Purpose - Defines the system being studied - Gets agreement - Identifies value added activities - Identifies dead wood activities - Identifies areas of data stratification - Documents changes to the process

Deployment Flow Chart

When is it used? Answer yes to all of the following: 1. Is a picture of the process needed? 2. Is it necessary to show the relationship of the people and process steps? 3. Will the process be pictured as it actually operates?

Deployment Flow Chart

How is it made? 1. Define the process boundaries. 2. Observe the process in operation. 3. Draw a People Coordinate. 4. List major steps in the process. 5. Draw the flow chart, using symbols 6. Study the flow chart.

Flow Chart
Remember
- A flow chart is a picture of a process. - Choosing the style and depth of detail depends on purpose. - Everyone involved with the process should help in construction and agree on picture. - A flow chart is a dynamic tool which should be changed when process changes are made.

Flow Chart
Getting the most - Use them on an ongoing basis; expand into more detail. - Keep them current, as they should represent the current, best known way to operate.

Process Flow Chart

What is it? - A picture of the major steps in a process - Does not show the relationship of the people doing the work and the steps in the process

Process Flow Chart

When is it used? Answer yes to all of the following: 1. Is a picture of a process needed? 2. Are actual steps in the process shown? 3. Is it unnecessary to show the relationship between the people doing the work and the work being done?

Process Flow Chart

How is it made? 1. Observe the process. 2. List all steps in the process. 3. Arrange the steps in sequence. 4. Draw the Flow Chart. 5. Study the Flow Chart.

Force Field Analysis

What is it? A problem-solving tool to help change occur Views change as a struggle between forces - Driving forces help change occur - Restraining forces block the change

Force Field Analysis

When is it used? - Any time a change is expected to be difficult

Force Field Analysis

How is it made? 1. Define the desired change or action. 2. Brainstorm the driving forces. 3. Brainstorm the restraining forces. 4. Prioritize the driving forces. 5. Prioritize the restraining forces. 6. List action to be taken.

Force Field Analysis

Remember Reviews proposed change from both for and against viewpoint. Provides a starting point for action. A list of actions is the output.

Force Field Analysis

Variations Match forces Driving forces and restraining forces are matched in an attempt to cancel each other out If no match exists for restraining force(s), action will be developed to reduce, eliminate, or reverse

Histogram
What is it? - Bar graph of raw data - A tool to show central location, shape, and spread of data - A means to gain knowledge about the system - A way to assess stability so that predictions about system performance can be made.

Histogram
When is it used? Answer yes to all of the following: 1. Do you have a data set of related values? 2. Is it important to visualize central location, shape, and spread of the data?

Histogram
How is it made?
1. Select the classes. a. Determine the number of classes. b. Determine the class width and boundaries 2. Record the data. 3. Prepare the axes. b. Draw and label the horizontal and vertical axes. b. Scale and label each axis.

Histogram
How is it made? (cont.) 4. Draw the histogram. 5. Study the shape. 6. Calculate the statistics. A. Central location. B. Spread 7. Compare your histogram to the normal distribution.

Histogram
Remember Is a picture of a set of data Can use to make predictions about the future if the system is stable Shows central location, shape and spread

Histogram
Getting the most Apply the concepts of central location, shape, and spread. Use to predict when the system is stable.

Measurement Examples
Function: Is the system doing what it is supposed to do?
- Performance, % of students who master first time, rework, errors

Cost: What are the costs to the customers, either internal or external?
- Unit cost, losses, material costs (non)quality costs, loss of self-esteem, length of time it takes for a teacher to use a new teaching method

Measurement Examples
(cont.) Delivery: Is the product or service there when and where the customer needs it? - On-time, where needed, quantity needed, inventory, lead time, cycle time, cause availability

Measurement Examples
(cont.) Safety: Is the product or service physically and psychologically safe for the user?
- Survey results, anecdotal information, critical incident reports

Morale: Are the internal customers satisfied?

- Survey results, anecdotal information, critical incident reports

Nominal Group Technique

What is it? - A structured group process used to help make decisions - A tool to give everyone on the team an equal voice in decision making - A way to generate more unique, higher quality ideas

Nominal Group Technique

When is it used? When you need to generate and choose a course of action for improvement

Nominal Group Technique

How is it made? 1. State the defined area of opportunity 2. Silently generate action items 3. State and record the ideas 4. Discuss each item on the list 5. Establish criteria for the voting

Nominal Group Technique

How is it made? (cont.) 6. Conduct a preliminary vote. a. Individuals choose the items most important to them. b. Rank order the cards. c. Record the votes. d. Discuss the results of the vote.

Nominal Group Technique

Remember - Helps to generate and choose actions - Minimizes internal group influences - Promotes team commitment to actions by involving all members in decision making

Nominal Group Technique

Getting the most - Use for planning continuous improvement. - Use over time.

Nominal Group Technique

Variations - Decision matrix

Operational Definition
What is it? - Gives a clear, concise, and detailed definition of a measure - Provides clear communication among everyone in the system - Yields a single yes or no answer, is consistently applied, and is understandable - Defines measures for improvement teams before they begin gathering data

Operational Definition
Attributes data - Data that is counted - number of absent students - number of missed homework items - number of tardies - The operational definition is fundamental to improve uniformity of judgement.

Operational Definition
Attributes data - Data that is counted - number of absent students - number of missed homework items - number of tardies - The operational definition is fundamental to improve uniformity of judgement

Operational Definition
(cont.) Variables data - Data that is measured - time - money - electricity usage - The operational definition gives specific instruction on how criteria is measured.

Operational Definition
What does it look like? 1. Characteristic of interest: - Purchase delivery time. 2. Measuring instrument: - A calendar and the holiday schedule.

Operational Definition
What does it look like? (cont.) 3. Method of test:
- Three campuses and one support site will be included in the sample for the months of September-April (1991-92). Requisition will be selected randomly (every 10th requisition does not have a P.O., then select the next requisition for which a P.O. was issued). The desired data is the number of working days between issuance of the requisition by a site and the date the completed purchase order is received at the site. This number is determined by subtracting the requisition date and then subtracting the number of non-working days and holidays during that period.

Operational Definition
What does it look like? (cont.) 4. Decision criteria: - The number of working days required from requisition to delivery of materials at the site.

Operational Definition
When is it used? - With every project when defining quality measures

Operational Definition
How is it made? 1. Identify the characteristic of interest. 2. Select measuring instrument. 3. Describe the test method. 4. State the decision criteria. 5. Document the operational definition.

Operational Definition
Remember - Helps reduce the variability in data collection - Is required for both attributed and variables data - Is used by improvement teams to define quality measures before gathering data

Operational Definition
Getting the most - Check the operational definition and evaluation whenever system is unstable - Use as a communication tool between customer and supplier. - Test the operational definition before standardizing by applying the method of test.

Pareto Diagram
What is it?
- A bar chart which ranks related measures in decreasing order of occurrence - A tool to separate the significant aspects from the trivial ones - A way to stratify data, study improvement results, and plan for continuous improvement

Pareto Diagram
When is it used? - Answer yes to all of the following: 1. Can data be arranged in categories? 2. Is the rank of each category important?

Pareto Diagram
How is it made?
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Select logical categories. Specify the time period. Collect the data. Construct a frequency table. Draw and scale the horizontal and vertical axes. a. Draw the horizontal axis. b. Decide on the scaling floor.

Pareto Diagram
How is it made? (cont.)
5. Draw and scale the horizontal and vertical axes. (cont.) c. Draw the vertical axis. d. Scale the vertical axis. 6. Draw and label the bars for each category 7. Draw the cumulative percentage line. 8. Review the results of the Pareto.

Pareto Diagram
Remember
- A pareto diagram is a bar chart that ranks data by categories - It is based on the idea that only a few categories contain most of the data. - The largest bar(s) directs team efforts. - Team can use tool for several purposes during the project. - Pareto is a simple, powerful tool.

Pareto Diagram
Getting the most
- Use subdivisions when the data is first collected at the general level. - Use multi-perspective analysis when the data can be stratified. - Repeat analysis to see how the system is changing. - Study the systems stability before doing Pareto analysis.

Relations Diagram
What is it? - A picture of cause-and-effect relationships between elements of a problem - Management tool to help identify root causes and root effects of a problem

Relations Diagram
When is it used? Answer yes to all of the following: 1. Do the aspects of a complex issue need to be analyzed and understood? 2. Is the team having trouble getting to the root causes of a problem because only symptoms seem to be apparent?

Relations Diagram
How is it made? 1. Clearly define the issue or problem. 2. Construct the diagram layout. 3. Analyze the relationships. 4. Count the arrows. 5. Identify the root causes and effects. 6. Study the final diagram.

Relations Diagram
Remember - Helps analyze cause-and-effect relationships among elements of a problem - Directs a team toward the root causes of a problem

Relations Diagram
Getting the most - Use over time and revisit the diagram to check teams progress.

Run Chart
What is it? - A line graph of data plotted over time - Data can be attributes or variables - A means of looking at the systems behavior over time - A tool used by an improvement team when gathering baseline data at the beginning of a project

Run Chart
When is it used? Answer yes to all of the following: 1. Is the data collected over time? 2. Is the time order of the data preserved?

Run Chart
How is it made? 1. Complete the header information. 2. Record the data. 3. Determine the scaling for the chart. 4. Plot the values on the chart. 5. Interpret the chart.

Run Chart
Remember - A plot of data over time - Time is plotted on horizontal axis, variable value on vertical axis. - Used to detect trends or patterns in data over time - The basis for a control chart

Run Chart
Getting the most - Use often and with different kinds of data - Display of public - Use as a quick test of system performance

Sampling
What is it? - The process of selecting the size and frequency of samples being taken from a subgroup - The process of selecting a representative part of a population to estimate characteristics of the population - A process of gathering data at a lower cost without reduced accuracy

Sampling
Terms
- Population
- The area under study - Frame - A listing of all the elements in the population - Sample - The actual data gathered for quantitative analysis, also called subgroups - Conceptual Population - The past, current, and future population - Assumes that the process is ongoing

Sampling
When is it used? Any time data is to be gathered

Sampling
How is it made? 1. Determine what question you are thinking of the data. 2. Determine the frequency of sampling. 3. Determine the actual frequency times. 4. Select the subgroup size. a. Variables data b. Attributes data

Sampling
Remember Guided the quantitative study of a system Is used to minimize cost and improve accuracy Frequency depends on how often a process changes

Scatter Diagram
What is it? A graph showing the plotted values of two factors A tool demonstrating whether or not two factors are related

Scatter Diagram
When is it used?
Answer yes to all of the following: 1. Do you want to test whether the performance of one factor is related to the performance of another? 2. Are the two factors: a. A quality characteristic and a factor suspect affects it, OR b. Two related quality characteristics, OR c. Two factors suspected of relating to the same quality characteristics.

you

Scatter Diagram
How is it made? 1. Draw and label the horizontal and vertical axes. 2. Scale each axis. 3. Plot the points. 4. Interpret the scatter diagram: a. Look for patterns. b. Look for outliers.

Scatter Diagram
Remember Can be constructed if a relationship is thought to exist between two factors Is used to verify causes The pattern, if any, gives information about how the factors are related

Scatter Diagram
Getting the most Data stratification may be required because of intervening factors and changing patterns in the relationship The plotted relationship between two factors may change direction.

Systematic Diagram
What is it? A graphic representation of the different levels of actions needed to achieve a goal A management tool used to generate specific action items that can be implemented to accomplish a broad goal

Systematic Diagram
When is it used? Answer yes to all of the following: 1. Has a broad task or goal become the focus of the teams work? 2. Is the action plan to accomplish the goal or task likely to be complex?

Systematic Diagram
How is it made?
1. Record the problem or goal statement. 2. Generate the first level of items. 3. Complete the systematic diagram under each major path. 4. Study the diagram.

Systematic Diagram
Remember Used to generate a specific list of action items which can be implemented to achieve a goal Used by a team to:
plan a test for an improvement theory plan for standardizing an improvement plan for continuous improvement

Systematic Diagram
Getting the most Assign responsibility for completion of action items when diagram is completed

X-R Chart
What is it? A picture of system data gathered over time A chart that shows how the mean and range of the subgroups change over time A tool to help minimize the chance of overcontrol or undercontrol

X-R Chart
When is it used? Answer yes to all of the following: 1. Do you need to assess the stability of a system? 2. Is data in variables form? 3. Is data collected in subgroups larger than one? 4. Is the time order of subgroups preserved?

X-R Chart
How is it made?
Complete the header information. Record the data. Calculate the statistics for each subgroup. Calculate the averages for the subgroup statistics. Calculate the control limits. Determine the scaling for the charts. Draw the center line and control limits. Plot the values on the charts. Interpret the control chart.

X-R Chart
Remember Shows how variables data changes over time Helps to identify special and common causes of variation

X-R Chart
Getting the most Assess stability Stratify data Track system changes as a result of implemented improvement theories

X-MR Chart
What is it? A picture of system data gathered over time A chart that shown how individual measured values and the variability between subsequent values change over time A tool to help minimize the chance of overcontrol or undercontrol

X-MR Chart
When is it used? Answer yes to all of the following: 1. Do you need to assess the stability of a system. 2. Is data in variables form? 3. Is data collected in subgroups of one? 4. Is the time order of subgroups preserved?

X-MR Chart
How is it made?
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Complete the header information. Record the data. Calculate the moving ranges. Calculate the overall averages. Calculate the control limits. Determine the scaling for the charts. Draw the center lines and control limits. Plot the values on the charts. Interpret the control chart.

X-MR Chart
Remember Shows how variables data changes over time Helps to identify special and common causes of variation n=1 The range is found by comparing subsequent subgroups

X-MR Chart
Getting the most Assess stability Stratify data Track system changes as a result of implemented improvement theories