Objective

Crack
Initiation
S-N
curves
Cyclic
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
1
Microstructure-Properties: II
Fatigue
27-302
Lecture 9
Fall, 2002
Prof. A. D. Rollett
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2
Materials Tetrahedron
Microstructure Properties
Processing
Performance
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3
Objective
The objective of this lecture is to explain the
phenomenon of fatigue and also to show how
resistance to fatigue failure depends on
microstructure.
For 27-302, Fall 2002: this slide set contains
more material than can be covered in the
time available. Slides that contain material
over and above that expected for this course
are marked *.
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4
References
Mechanical Behavior of Materials (2000), T. H.
Courtney, McGraw-Hill, Boston.
Phase transformations in metals and alloys, D.A.
Porter, & K.E. Easterling, Chapman & Hall.
Materials Principles & Practice, Butterworth
Heinemann, Edited by C. Newey & G. Weaver.
Mechanical Metallurgy, McGrawHill, G.E. Dieter, 3rd
Ed.
Light Alloys (1996), I.J. Polmear, Wiley, 3rd Ed.
Hull, D. and D. J. Bacon (1984). Introduction to
Dislocations. Oxford, UK, Pergamon.
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5
Notation
o
a
:= Alternating stress
o
m
:= Mean stress
R := Stress ratio
c := strain
N
f
:= number of cycles to failure
A := Amplitude ratio
c
pl
:= Plastic strain amplitude
c
el
:= Elastic strain amplitude
K := Proportionality constant, cyclic stress-strain
n := Exponent in cyclic stress-strain
c := Exponent in Coffin-Manson Eq.;
also, crack length
E := Youngs modulus
b := exponent in Basquin Eq.
m := exponent in Paris Law
K := Stress intensity
K := Stress intensity amplitude
a := crack length

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6
Fatigue
Fatigue is the name given to failure in response to
alternating loads (as opposed to monotonic
straining).
Instead of measuring the resistance to fatigue
failure through an upper limit to strain (as in
ductility), the typical measure of fatigue resistance
is expressed in terms of numbers of cycles to
failure. For a given number of cycles (required in
an application), sometimes the stress (that can be
safely endured by the material) is specified.
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7
Fatigue: general characteristics
Primary design criterion in rotating parts.
Fatigue as a name for the phenomenon based on the
notion of a material becoming tired, i.e. failing at
less than its nominal strength.
Cyclical strain (stress) leads to fatigue failure.
Occurs in metals and polymers but rarely in
ceramics.
Also an issue for static parts, e.g. bridges.
Cyclic loading stress limit<static stress capability.
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8
Fatigue: general characteristics
Most applications of structural materials involve cyclic
loading; any net tensile stress leads to fatigue.
Fatigue failure surfaces have three characteristic
features: [see next slide, also Courtney figs. 12.1, 12.2]
A (near-)surface defect as the origin of the crack
Striations corresponding to slow, intermittent crack growth
Dull, fibrous brittle fracture surface (rapid growth).
Life of structural components generally limited by
cyclic loading, not static strength.
Most environmental factors shorten life.
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9
S-N Curves
S-N [stress-number of cycles to failure] curve defines
locus of cycles-to-failure for given cyclic stress.
Rotating-beam fatigue test is standard; also
alternating tension-compression.
Plot stress versus the
log(number of cycles
to failure), log(N
f
).
[see next slide,
also Courtney figs. 12.8, 12.9]
For frequencies < 200Hz,
metals are insensitive to
frequency; fatigue life in
polymers is frequency
dependent.
[Hertzberg]
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10
Fatigue testing, S-N curve
[Dieter]
Note the presence of a
fatigue limit in many
steels and its absence
in aluminum alloys.
log N
f

o
a

o
mean 1

o
mean 2

o
mean 3

o
mean 3
> o
mean 2
> o
mean 1

The greater the number of
cycles in the loading history,
the smaller the stress that
the material can withstand
without failure.
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11
Endurance Limits
Some materials exhibit endurance limits, i.e.
a stress below which the life is infinite: [fig. 12.8]
Steels typically show an endurance limit, = 40% of
yield; this is typically associated with the presence
of a solute (carbon, nitrogen) that pines
dislocations and prevents dislocation motion at
small displacements or strains (which is apparent
in an upper yield point).
Aluminum alloys do not show endurance limits;
this is related to the absence of dislocation-pinning
solutes.
At large N
f
, the lifetime is dominated by nucleation.
Therefore strengthening the surface (shot peening) is
beneficial to delay crack nucleation and extend life.
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12
Fatigue fracture
surface
[Hertzberg]
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13
Fatigue crack stages
Stage 1
Stage 2
[Dieter]
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14
Fatigue Crack Propagation
Crack Nucleation stress intensification at crack tip.
Stress intensity crack propagation (growth);
- stage I growth on shear planes (45),
strong influence of microstructure [Courtney: fig.12.3a]
- stage II growth normal to tensile load (90)
weak influence of microstructure [Courtney: fig.12.3b].
Crack propagation catastrophic, or ductile failure
at crack length dependent on boundary conditions,
fracture toughness.
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15
Fatigue Crack Nucleation
Flaws, cracks, voids can all act as crack nucleation
sites, especially at the surface.
Therefore, smooth surfaces increase the time to
nucleation; notches, stress risers decrease fatigue
life.
Dislocation activity (slip) can also nucleate fatigue
cracks.
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16
Dislocation Slip Crack Nucleation
Dislocation slip -> tendency to localize slip in
bands. [see slide 10, also Courtney fig. 12.3]
Persistent Slip Bands (PSBs) characteristic of
cyclic strains.
Slip Bands -> extrusion at free surface. [see next slide
for fig. from Murakami et al.]
Extrusions -> intrusions and crack nucleation.
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17
Slip steps
and the
stress-strain
loop
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18
Design Philosophy: Damage Tolerant
Design
S-N (stress-cycles) curves = basic characterization.
Old Design Philosophy = Infinite Life design: accept
empirical information about fatigue life (S-N curves);
apply a (large!) safety factor; retire components or
assemblies at the pre-set life limit, e.g. N
f
=10
7
.
*Crack Growth Rate characterization ->
*Modern Design Philosophy (Air Force, not Navy
carriers!) = Damage Tolerant design: accept
presence of cracks in components. Determine life
based on prediction of crack growth rate.
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19
Definitions: Stress Ratios
Alternating Stress
Mean stress om = (omax +omin)/2.
Pure sine wave Mean stress=0.
Stress ratio R = omax/omin.
For om = 0, R=-1
Amplitude ratio A = (1-R)/(1+R).
Statistical approach shows significant
distribution in Nf for given stress.
See Courtney fig. 12.6; also following slide.
o
a
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20
Alternating Stress Diagrams
[Dieter]
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21
Mean Stress
Alternating stress oa = (omax-omin)/2.
Raising the mean stress (om) decreases Nf. [see slide 19,
also Courtney fig. 12.9]
Various relations between R = 0 limit and the ultimate
(or yield) stress are known as Soderberg (linear to
yield stress), Goodman (linear to ultimate) and
Gerber (parabolic to ultimate). [Courtney, fig. 12.10, problem
12.3]
o
a

o
mean

tensile strength
endurance limit at zero mean stress
o
a
= o
fat
1
o
mean
tensile strength
|
\


|
.
|
|
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22
Cyclic strain vs. cyclic stress
Cyclic strain control complements cyclic
stress characterization: applicable to thermal
fatigue, or fixed displacement conditions.
Cyclic stress-strain testing defined by a
controlled strain range, c
pl
. [see next slide,
Courtney, figs. 12.24,12.25]
Soft, annealed metals tend to harden;
strengthened metals tend to soften.
Thus, many materials tend towards a fixed
cycle, i.e. constant stress, strain amplitudes.
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23
Cyclic stress-strain curve
[Courtney]
Large number of cycles typically needed to reach
asymptotic hysteresis loop (~100).
Softening or hardening possible. [fig. 12.26]
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24
Cyclic stress-strain
Wavy-slip materials
generally reach asymptote
in cyclic stress-strain:
planar slip materials (e.g.
brass) exhibit history
dependence.
Cyclic stress-strain curve
defined by the extrema,
i.e. the tips of the
hysteresis loops. [Courtney
fig. 12.27]
Cyclic stress-strain curves
tend to lie below those for
monotonic tensile tests.
Polymers tend to soften in
cyclic straining.
[Courtney]
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Design
25
Cyclic Strain Control
Strain is a more logical independent variable
for characterization of fatigue. [fig. 12.11]
Define an elastic strain range as c
el
= o/E.
Define a plastic strain range, c
pl
.
Typically observe a change in slope between
the elastic and plastic regimes. [fig. 12.12]
Low cycle fatigue (small N
f
) dominated by
plastic strain: high cycle fatigue (large N
f
)
dominated by elastic strain.
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Design
26
Strain control
of fatigue
[Courtney]
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Design
27
Cyclic Strain control: low cycle
Constitutive relation
for cyclic stress-strain:
n 0.1-0.2
Fatigue life: Coffin Manson relation:


c
f
~ true fracture strain; close to tensile
ductility
c -0.5 to -0.7
c = -1/(1+5n); large n longer life.
Ao = ' K Ac ( )
' n
Ac
p
2
= ' c
f
2N
f
c
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28
Cyclic Strain control: high cycle
For elastic-dominated strains
at high cycles, adapt
Basquins equation:
Intercept on strain axis of extrapolated
elastic line = o
f
/E.
High cycle = elastic strain control:
slope (in elastic regime) = b = -
n/(1+5n) [Courtney, fig. 12.13]
The high cycle fatigue strength, o
f
,
scales with the yield stress high
strength good in high-cycle
o
a
= E
Ac
e
2
= ' o
f
2N ( )
b
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29
Strain amplitude - cycles
[Courtney]
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30
Total strain (plastic+elastic) life
Low cycle = plastic control: slope = c
Add the elastic and plastic strains.



Cross-over between elastic and plastic control is
typically at N
f
= 10
3
cycles.
Ductility useful for low-cycle; strength for high cycle
Examples of Maraging steel for high cycle
endurance, annealed 4340 for low cycle fatigue
strength.
A
2
=
Ac
el
2
+
Ac
pl
2
=
' o
f
E
2N
f
b
+ ' c
f
2N
f
c
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Design
31
Fatigue Crack Propagation
Crack Length := a.
Number of cycles := N
Crack Growth Rate := da/dN
Amplitude of Stress Intensity := K = oc.
Define three stages of crack growth, I, II and III,
in a plot of da/dN versus K.
Stage II crack growth: application of linear elastic fracture
mechanics.
Can consider the crack growth rate to be related to the applied
stress intensity.
Crack growth rate somewhat insensitive to R (if R<0) in Stage II
[fig. 12.16, 12.18b]
Environmental effects can be dramatic, e.g. H in Fe, in
increasing crack growth rates.
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32
Fatigue Crack Propagation
Three stages of crack
growth, I, II and III.
Stage I: transition to a
finite crack growth rate
from no propagation
below a threshold value
of K.
Stage II: power law
dependence of crack
growth rate on K.
Stage III: acceleration
of growth rate with K,
approaching
catastrophic fracture.
da/dN
K
K
th

K
c

I
II
III
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33
*Paris Law
Paris Law:

m ~ 3 (steel); m ~ 4 (aluminum).
Crack nucleation ignored!
Threshold ~ Stage I
The threshold represents an endurance
limit.
For ceramics, threshold is close to K
IC
.
Crack growth rate increases with R (for
R>0). [fig. 12.18a]
dc
dN
= A(AK)
m
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34
*Striations- mechanism
Striations occur by development of slip bands
in each cycle, followed by tip blunting,
followed by closure.
Can integrate the growth rate to obtain cycles
as related to cyclic stress-strain behavior. [Eqs.
12.6-12.8]
N
II
=
dc
Ao
m
Ao c ( )
m
c
0
c
f
}
N
II
=
dc
dc/ dN
c
0
c
f
}
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35
*Striations, contd.
Provided that m>2 and o is constant, can integrate.



If the initial crack length is much less than the final
length, c
0
<c
f
, then approximate thus:




Can use this to predict fatigue life based on known
crack
N
II
=
A
1
o Ao ( )
m
(m/ 2) 1
c
0
1 m/ 2 ( )
c
f
1 m/ 2 ( )
N
II
=
A
1
o Ao ( )
m
(m/ 2) 1
c
0
1 m/ 2 ( )
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36
*Damage Tolerant Design
Calculate expected growth rates from dc/dN
data.
Perform NDE on all flight-critical components.
If crack is found, calculate the expected life of
the component.
Replace, rebuild if too close to life limit.
Endurance limits.
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Design
37
Geometrical effects
Notches decrease fatigue life through stress
concentration.
Increasing specimen size lowers fatigue life.
Surface roughness lowers life, again through stress
concentration.
Moderate compressive stress at the surface
increases life (shot peening); it is harder to nucleate a
crack when the local stress state opposes crack
opening.
Corrosive environment lowers life; corrosion either
increases the rate at which material is removed from
the crack tip and/or it produces material on the crack
surfaces that forces the crack open (e.g. oxidation).
Failure mechanisms
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38
Microstructure-Fatigue Relationships
What are the important issues in microstructure-
fatigue relationships?
Answer: three major factors.
1: geometry of the specimen (previous slide); anything on the
surface that is a site of stress concentration will promote
crack formation (shorten the time required for nucleation of
cracks).
2: defects in the material; anything inside the material that can
reduce the stress and/or strain required to nucleate a crack
(shorten the time required for nucleation of cracks).
3: dislocation slip characteristics; if dislocation glide is confined
to particular slip planes (called planar slip) then dislocations
can pile up at any grain boundary or phase boundary. The
head of the pile-up is a stress concentration which can
initiate a crack.
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Design
39
Microstructure affects Crack Nucleation
The main effect of
microstructure (defects,
surface treatment, etc.)
is almost all in the low
stress intensity regime,
i.e. Stage I. Defects,
for example, make it
easier to nucleate a
crack, which translates
into a lower threshold
for crack propagation
(K
th
).
Microstructure also
affects fracture
toughness and
therefore Stage III.
da/dN
K
K
th

K
c

I
II
III
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40
Defects in Materials
Descriptions of defects in materials at the sophomore level
focuses, appropriately on intrinsic defects (vacancies,
dislocations). For the materials engineer, however, defects
include extrinsic defects such as voids, inclusions, grain
boundary films, and other types of undesirable second phases.
Voids are introduced either by gas evolution in solidification or
by incomplete sintering in powder consolidation.
Inclusions are second phases entrained in a material during
solidification. In metals, inclusions are generally oxides from the
surface of the metal melt, or a slag.
Grain boundary films are common in ceramics as glassy films
from impurities.
In aluminum alloys, there is a hierachy of names for second
phase particles; inclusions are unwanted oxides (e.g. Al
2
O
3
);
dispersoids are intermetallic particles that, once precipitated, are
thermodynamically stable (e.g. AlFeSi compounds); precipitates
are intermetallic particles that can be dissolved or precipiated
depending on temperature (e.g. AlCu compounds).
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41
Metallurgical Control: fine particles
Tendency to localization of flow is deleterious to the
initiation of fatigue cracks, e.g. Al-7050 with non-
shearable vs. shearable precipitates (Stage I in a
da/dN plot). Also Al-Cu-Mg with shearable
precipitates but non-shearable dispersoids, vs. only
shearable ppts.
graph courtesy of J.
Staley, Alcoa
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Design
42
Coarse particle effect on fatigue
Inclusions nucleate cracks cleanliness (w.r.t.
coarse particles) improves fatigue life, e.g. 7475
improved by lower Fe+Si compared to 7075:
0.12Fe in 7475, compared to 0.5Fe in 7075;
0.1Si in 7475, compared to 0.4Si in 7075.
graph courtesy of J.
Staley, Alcoa
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Design
43
Alloy steel heat treatment
Increasing hardness tends to raise the endurance
limit for high cycle fatigue. This is largely a function
of the resistance to fatigue crack formation (Stage I in
a plot of da/dN).
[Dieter]
Mobile solutes that pin
dislocations fatigue
limit, e.g. carbon in steel
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Design
44
Casting porosity affects fatigue
Casting tends to result in porosity. Pores are effective sites for
nucleation of fatigue cracks. Castings thus tend to have lower
fatigue resistance (as measured by S-N curves) than wrought
materials.
Casting technologies, such as squeeze casting, that reduce porosity
tend to eliminate this difference.
[Polmear]
Gravity cast
versus
squeeze cast
versus
wrought
Al-7010
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Design
45
Titanium alloys
For many Ti alloys, the proportion of hcp (alpha) and bcc (beta) phases
depends strongly on the heat treatment. Cooling from the two-phase region
results in a two-phase structure, as Polmears example, 6.7a. Rapid cooling
from above the transus in the single phase (beta) region results in a two-
phase microstructure with Widmansttten laths of (martensitic) alpha in a beta
matrix, 6.7b.
The fatigue properties of the two-phase structure are significantly better than
the Widmansttten structure (more resistance to fatigue crack formation).
The alloy in this example is IM834, Ti-5.5Al-4Sn-4Zr-0.3Mo-1Nb-0.35Si-0.6C.
[Polmear]
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Design
46
*Design Considerations
If crack growth rates are normalized by the elastic
modulus, then material dependence is mostly
removed! [Courtney fig. 12.20]
Can distinguish between intrinsic fatigue [use Eq.
12.4 for combined elastic, plastic strain range] for
small crack sizes and extrinsic fatigue [use Eq. 12.6
for crack growth rate controlled] at longer crack
lengths. [fig. 12.21.]
Inspection of design charts, fig. 12.22, shows that
ceramics sensitive to crack propagation (high
endurance limit in relation to fatigue threshold).
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47
*Design Considerations: 2
Metals show a higher fatigue threshold in
relation to their endurance limit. PMMA and
Mg are at the lower end of the toughness
range in their class. [Courtney fig. 12.22]
Also interesting to compare fracture
toughness with fatigue threshold. [Courtney fig.
12.23]
Note that ceramics are almost on ratio=1 line,
whereas metals tend to lie well below, i.e.
fatigue is more significant criterion.
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Design
48
*Fatigue
property map
[Courtney]
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Design
49
*Fatigue
property map
[Courtney]
Objective
Crack
Initiation
S-N
curves
Cyclic
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
50
*Variable Stress/Strain Histories
When the stress/strain history is
stochastically varying, a rule for combining
portions of fatigue life is needed.
Palmgren-Miner Rule is useful: n
i
is the
number of cycles at each stress level, and N
fi

is the failure point for that stress.
[Ex. Problem 12.2]
n
i
N
f
i
1
i
* Courtneys Eq. 12.9 is confusing; he has N
f
in the numerator also
Objective
Crack
Initiation
S-N
curves
Cyclic
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
51
*Fatigue in Polymers
Many differences from metals
Cyclic stress-strain behavior often exhibits
softening; also affected by visco-elastic
effects; crazing in the tensile portion
produces asymmetries, figs. 12.34, 12.25.
S-N curves exhibit three regions, with steeply
decreasing region II, fig. 12.31.
Nearness to T
g
results in strong temperature
sensitivity, fig. 12.42
Objective
Crack
Initiation
S-N
curves
Cyclic
stress-strn
Crack
Propagate
Microstr.
effects
Design
52
Fatigue: summary
Critical to practical use of structural materials.
Fatigue affects most structural components,
even apparently statically loaded ones.
Well characterized empirically.
Connection between dislocation behavior and
fatigue life offers exciting research
opportunities, i.e. physically based models
are lacking!