PERCEPTION AND LEARNING

Perception Defined

The process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us
deciding which information to

notice how to categorize this information how to interpret information within our existing knowledge framework

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Selective Attention

Objects characteristics
size, intensity, motion,

repetition, novelty

Perceiver characteristics
Emotional marker process

Expectations
Self-concept and beliefs

Confirmation bias
Screen out information

contrary to our beliefs/values

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Perceptual Organization/Interpretation

Categorical thinking
Mostly nonconscious process of organizing

people/things

Perceptual grouping principles

Similarity or proximity Closure -- filling in missing pieces Perceiving trends

Interpreting incoming information

Emotional markers automatically evaluate

information
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Social Perception and Social Identity

Categorization process
compare characteristics of

our groups with other groups

Homogenization process
similar traits within a group;

different traits across groups

Differentiation process
develop less favourable

images of people in groups other than our own

HamidSenni

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Stereotyping

Assigning traits to people based on their membership in a social category/group where they are belong

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Attribution Process
Internal Attribution
Perception that behavior is caused by persons own motivation or ability

External Attribution
Perception that behavior is caused by situation or fate -- beyond persons control

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Attribution Theory: Judging others

Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.

Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation. Consistency: responds in the same way over time.

Attribution Theory

RULES OF ATTRIBUTION
Frequently (high consistency)

Internal Attribution Behavior is attributed To internal factors

Frequently (low distinctiveness)

(low consensus)

Consistency How often did the person act this way in the past
Seldom (low consistency)

Distinctiveness How often does the person act this way in other setting
Seldom (high distinctiveness)

Consensus How often do other people act this way in similar situation

(high consensus)

External attribution Behavior is attributed To external factors

Attribution Errors

Fundamental Attribution Error

Tendency to see the people rather than the

situation as the main cause of behavior We blame people first, not the situation

Self-Serving Bias
attributing our successes to internal factors

and our failures to external factors It is our success but their failure

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

...The perceptual process in which our expectation about another person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectation

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle

Supervisor forms expectations

Employees behavior matches expectations

Expectations affect supervisors behavior

Supervisors behavior affects employee

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Effect is Strongest...

...at the beginning of the relationship (e.g. employee joins the team) ...when several people have similar expectations about the person

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Other Perceptual Errors

Halo effect
one trait forms a general impression

Primacy effect
first impressions

Recency effect
most recent information dominates perceptions

False-consensus effect
overestimate the extent to which others have

beliefs and characteristics similar to our own

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Definition of Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior tendency) that occurs as a result of a persons interaction with the environment

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Explicit vs.Tacit Knowledge

Explicit knowledge
Knowledge that is articulated through language,

such as documents

Tacit knowledge
Knowledge acquired through observation and

direct experience

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Behavior Modification

We operate on the environment

alter behavior to maximize positive and

minimize adverse consequences

Learning is viewed as completely dependent on the environment Human thoughts are viewed as unimportant

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A-B-Cs of Behavior Modification

Antecedents
What happens beforebehavior

Behavior
What person says or does

Consequences
What happens after behavior

Example
Warning light flashes Machine operator turns off power Co-workers thank operator

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Contingencies of Reinforcement
Consequence is introduced Behavior increases/ maintained Positive reinforcement No consequence Consequence is removed Negative reinforcement

Behavior decreases

Punishment

Extinction

Punishment

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Behavior Modification in Practice

Behavior modification is used in:

every day life to influence behavior of others company programs to reduce absenteeism,

improve safety, etc.

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Social Learning Theory

Behavioral modeling
Observing and modeling behavior of others

Learning behavior consequences

Observing consequences that others experience

Self-reinforcement
Reinforcing our own behavior with consequences

within our control

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Learning Through Experience

Most tacit knowledge and skills are acquired through experience and observation Experiential learning steps
Engagement with environment Reflecting on experience Experimenting

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