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Nucleus
Nickname: The Control Center Stores genetic information Contains DNA

Cell Membrane
Fragile, transparent barrier Controls what enters and leaves the cell

Cytoplasm
Site of most cellular activity Contains all the enzymes needed for all metabolic reactions

Mitochondria
Nickname: The Powerhouses Bound by a double membrane Breaks down food to make ATP

Ribosomes
Site of protein synthesis Found attached to rough ER or floating free in cytosol

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Connected to nuclear membrane Minicirculatory systemHighway of the cell Rough ER: studded with ribosomes; it makes proteins Smooth ER: no ribosomes; it makes lipids

Golgi Apparatus
Looks like a stack of flattened membranous sacs. Modify and package proteins

Lysosomes
Contain digestive enzymes that break down wastes Engulf smaller organisms or other food particles phagocytosis

Peroxisomes
Have enzymes that produce H2O2 & convert it to H2O Detoxify alcohol & other harmful substances in liver

Cytoskeleton
Acts as bones and muscle Provides shape and structure Helps move organelles around the cell Made of three types of filaments microtubules microfilaments intermediate filaments

Centrioles
Aids in cell division Made of microtubules Form cilia and flagella.

Cell Diversity
Cells that connect body parts

Fibroblasts

Erythrocytes

Cells that covers and lines body organs

Epithelial cells

 Cells that move organs and body parts

Skeletal muscle cell

Smooth muscle cells

 Cells that stores nutrients

Fat cell

 Cells that fights diseases

 Cells that gathers information & controls body functions

Nerve cell

 Cells of reproduction

Sperm

Oocyte

Cell Physiology

Selective Permeability
Selective permeability means that the cell membrane has some control over what can cross it, so that only certain molecules either enter or leave the cell. Molecules can cross the plasma membrane in three main ways which are
passive transport active transport diffusion

Passive Transport
Passive transport is the way that small molecules can cross the membrane without any additional energy being expended. These molecules could be water molecules, or they could be molecules other than water (like ions, oxygen gas, and monomers). There are three main ways that molecules can move by passive transport:
Simple Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion Osmosis

Simple Diffusion
Molecules (other than water) will move by diffusion as long as there is a concentration gradient. Do you understand what a concentration gradient is? It exists when a particular type of molecule (like food coloring dye molecules) is not spread out in an even concentration, but exists in a higher concentration at some point.

Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion is a type of passive transport that allows substances to cross membranes with the assistance of special transport proteins.

Osmosis
Diffusion of water through selectively permeable membrane like plasma membrane

Active Transport
Active transport is the movement of a substance against its concentration gradient (from low to high concentration). The process uses chemical energy, such as from adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Solute Pumping
Solute pumping allows a molecule that cannot regularly cross the lipid bilayer to enter the cell by way of a protein channel, however solute pumping requires ATP to change the shape of the protein channel to allow the molecule to pass through, therefore it is a form of active transport.

Exocytosis
Exocytosis is the process by which a cell directs the contents of secretory vesicles out of the cell membrane intracellular vesicle (membrane bounded sphere) moves to the plasma membrane and subsequent fusion of the vesicular membrane and plasma membrane ensues.

Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a process by which cells absorb molecules (such as proteins) by engulfing them The different types of endocytosis
pinocytosis Phagocytosis Receptor mediated endocytosis

Pinocytosis
In the process of pinocytosis the plasma membrane froms an invagination. What ever substance is found within the area of invagination is brought into the cell. In general this material will be dissolved in water and thus this process is also refered to as "cellular drinking" to indicate that liquids and material dissolved in liquids are ingested by the cell.

Phagocytosis
In the process of phagocytosis the cell changes shape by sending out projections which are called pseudpodia (false feet). The phagocytic cell such as a macrophage may be attracted to a particle like a bacteria or virus by chemical attractant.

Hypertonic
Is a solution that has more solutes than in the cell If red blood cell are exposed to hipertonic solution the cell will begin to shrink, or crenate Because water is in higher conncentration inside the cell than outside, so it follow concentration gradient and leaves the cell

Hypotonic
Is a solution that has fewer solutes than the cell does Cell placed in hypotonic solution plump up rapidly as water rushes into them

Isotonic
Is the solution that has same solute and water concentration. Isotonic solution cause no visible changes in cells When this solution infused into the bloodstream, red blood cell retain their normal size

If a cell wants to make a duplicate of itself, it first must copy its DNA (part of a chromosome). The copies then must be separated & sorted into two sides of the cell. The cell then splits in two. Part of each parent is carried to the two new cells. Results in cells such as internal organs, skin, bones, blood, etc.

As in mitosis, if a cell wants to make a duplicate of itself, it first must copy its DNA (part of a chromosome). Results in reproductive cells (sperm, eggs, etc). Part of each parent is carried to the four new cells. Meiosis has evolved to solve a problem. The problem is this: some organisms have sex with other organisms that is, they combine their genes together (creating genetic diversity). Why would this be a problem?

MITosis takes the cell and Makes It Two (diploid)

Meiosis has to do with sex From the cells point of view: mITosis results in Identical Twins mEioSis results in Egg and Sperm (haploid)

Each resulting cell still has chromosomes from mom & dad

Diploid Haploid

Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis

Interphase occurs just before Mitosis begins:

DNA is replicated along with organelles and other cellular components and the cell prepares for division.

http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/1110Lab/notes/notes1/lab6.htm

Mitosis Interphase
Animal cell Plant cell

Photographs from: http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/biol1110/Stages.htm

Prophase (preparation phase)

The DNA recoils, and the chromosomes condense; the nuclear membrane disappears, and the mitotic spindles begin to form.

http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/1110Lab/notes/notes1/lab6.htm

Mitosis Prophase
Animal cell Plant cell

Photographs from: http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/biol1110/Stages.htm

metaphase (organizational phase)

The chromosomes line up the middle of the cell with the help of spindle fibers attached to the centromere of each replicated chromosome.

http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/1110Lab/notes/notes1/lab6.htm

Mitosis Metaphase
Animal cell Plant cell

Photographs from: http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/biol1110/Stages.htm

Anaphase (separation phase)

The chromosomes split in the middle and the sister chromatids are pulled by the spindle fibers to opposite poles of the cell.

http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/1110Lab/notes/notes1/lab6.htm

Mitosis Anaphase
Animal cell

Plant cell

Photographs from: http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/biol1110/Stages.htm

Telophase
The chromosomes, along with the cytoplasm and its organelles and membranes are divided into 2 portions. This diagram shows the end of telophase.

http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/1110Lab/notes/notes1/lab6.htm

Mitosis Telophase
Animal cell Plant cell

Photographs from: http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/biol1110/Stages.htm

Cytokinesis
Beginning of cytokinesis in a plant:

The actual splitting of the daughter cells into two separate cells is called cytokinesis and occurs differently in both plant and animal Cells.

Beginning of cytokinesis in an animal:

http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/1110Lab/notes/notes1/lab6.htm

Meiosis animation:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1_-mQS_FZ0&NR=1

Interphase
Meiosis is preceded by interphase. The chromosomes have not yet condensed.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html

Interphase
The chromosomes have replicated, and the chromatin begins to condense.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html

Prophase I
The chromosomes are completely condensed. In meiosis (unlike mitosis), the homologous chromosomes pair with one another

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html

Metaphase I
The nuclear membrane dissolves and the homologous chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers. They are preparing to go to opposite poles.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html

Anaphase I
The chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html

Telophase I & Cytokinesis

The cell begins to divide into two daughter cells. It is important to understand that each daughter cell can get any combination of maternal and paternal chromosomes.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html

Prophase II
The cell has divided into two daughter cells.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html

Metaphase II
As in Meiosis I, the chromosomes line up on the spindle fibers.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html

Anaphase II
The two cells each begin to divide. As in Meiosis I, the chromosomes move to opposite ends of each cell.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html

Telophase II & Cytokinesis

With the formation of four cells, meiosis is over. Each of these prospective germ cells carries half the number of chromosomes of somatic cells.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html

Genes code for the sequence of nucleotides in RNA molecules.

RNA brings about formation of a protein coded for by DNA of a particular gene.

DNA

Transcription

mRNA

Translation Cytoplasm

PROTEIN

Replication Nucleus

Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T) of DNA. Types of RNA Messenger (mRNA) - Takes message from DNA in nucleus to ribosomes in cytoplasm. Transfer (tRNA) - Transfers amino acids to ribosomes. Ribosomal (rRNA) - Help make up ribosomes.

Transcription - Making a copy of the DNA code TRANSCRIPTION (DNA RNA) (remove interons) takes place in nucleus During transcription, an mRNA molecule is formed with a sequence of bases complementary to a portion of one DNA strand. Newly formed mRNA molecule, primary mRNA transcript, is modified before it leaves the eukaryotic nucleus.

video

TRANSLATION (RNA proteins) takes place on ribosomes in cytoplasm Translation - Translating the base pair codes into an amino acid sequence mRNA the copy of the code tRNA carries the amino acid to the ribosome as coded for in the mRNA codons code for specific amino acids.

video

Mader: Biology 8th Ed.

is a groups of cells which are similar in structure and which perform common or related functions.

SIMPLE EPITHELIUM EPITHELIAL TISSUE STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM BLOOD

TISSUE

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

CARTILAGE

NERVOUS TISSUE

BONE

SKELETAL MUSCLE

MUSCLE TISSUE

SMOOTH MUSCLE

CARDIAC MUSCLE

STRUCTURE: -Closely packed -Composed of single layer of cells or several layer of cells -Have no intercellular matrix -Surface may be smooth or have cilia, stereocilia and microvilli

Location: -Covers the internal and external body surfaces -Examples: 1. The outer part of skin 2. Linings in the digestive tract 3. Lungs 4. Blood vessels

Functions:
protection: protect underlying tissues secretion: secrete useful secretion such as mucus and gastric juices Absorption: epithelia lining of intestines absorbs digested food

- Most abundant & widely distributed tissue -Functions:

Connects, binds and supports structures,
Tendons, ligaments, etc.

Protects & cushions organs and tissues, Insulates (fat) and Transports substances (blood).

-Consist of erythrocytes, leucocytes, platelets and plasma -Manufactured in the bone marrow -Functions: Transport nutrient, hormones, and vitamins Carry oxygen for oxidation of food Fight disease Help in blood clotting

-Consists of cell embedded in a matrix of collagen hardened by calcium deposited -Functions: Give shape to the body Provide framework for support Site for blood cell production Site for skeletal muscle attachment

-Is a strong and flexible connective tissue -3 types of cartilage 1. Hyaline cartilage - Reduced friction between two bones surfaces 2. White fibrous cartilage - Act as a shock absorber 3. Yellow elastic cartilage - Permits the tissue to quickly recover its shape after distortion

- Associated with the bones of the skeleton, the heart and in the walls of the hollow organs of the body. -3 types of muscle tissue: 1. Skeletal muscle 2. Smooth muscle 3. Cardiac muscle

-Skeletal muscle fibres are long, cylindrical and unbranched -Have nuclei -Generally attached to the bones of the skeleton -Example: 1. In muscle of limbs 2. In the head 3. Trunk 4. Face 5. Neck

-Thin and elongate -Have a single centrally located nucleus in the cell -Found in walls of digestive tract, bladder, various ducts and other internal organs -Controlled by autonomic nervous system -Involuntary in action

-Found only in heart -Contract to pump blood to all parts of the body -Involuntary action

-Main component of the nervous system -Composed of neurones, or nerve cell -Each neurone consist of cell body and nerve fibres; dendrites and axons - 3 types of neurones 1. Afferent neurones 2. Efferent neurones 3. Motor neurones

Functions:
Regulates & controls body functions Generates & transmits nerve impulses Supports, insulates and protects impulse generating neurons