Rules of Inference

Presented By: N.Sridevi

Rule of Inference

In logic, a rule of inference, inference rule, or transformation rule is the act of drawing a conclusion based on the form of premises interpreted as a function which takes premises, analyses their syntax , and returns a conclusion (or conclusions) . It provide the justification of the steps used in a proofs.

Rules of Inference

The general form of a rule of inference is:

p1 p2 . . . . pn ____ q

The rule states that if p1 and p2 and and pn are all true, then q is true as well. Where pi are the premises and q is the conclusion.

Modus ponens
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The inference rule

p pq ____ q

If the statement in p is assumed as true, and also the statement pq is accepted as true, then, the conclusion q is also true. The basis of the modus ponens is the tautology. (p(pq)) q.

Example:
It rains. If it rains, then it is cloudy Therefore it is cloudy.

r = it rains c = it is cloudy
r rc c

Modus tollens

The rule of inference is q pq p This rule of inference is based on contrapositive. [~q (pq)] p

Example
It is not cloudy. If it rains, then it is cloudy. Therefore, it is not the case that is rains..
r = it rains c = it is cloudy ~c rc ~r

Rules of inference
Addition
pq _____ p p _____ pq ~q pq _____ ~p pq qr _____ pr

Modus tollens Hypothetical syllogism

Simplification

p pq _____ q

Modus ponens

pq ~p _____ q

Disjunctive syllogism

Conjunction

p q _____ pq

(pq) (rs) Pr q s

Constructive dilemma

(pq) (rs) ~q ~s ~p ~r

Destructive dilemma

Fallacies

Fallacies are incorrect arguments. Fallacies resemble rule of inference but are based on contingencies rather than tautologies.

Example:

If the price of gold is rising then inflation is surely coming. Inflation is surely coming. Therefore the price of gold is rising.
p : the price of gold is rising. q : inflation is surely coming.
pq q p

Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements

x P(x)
P(c) if cU

Universal instantiation

P(c) for an arbitrary cU ___________________ x P(x)

Universal generalization

x P(x) _____________________ P(c) for some element cU

Existential instantiation

P(c) for some element cU ____________________ x P(x)

Existential generalization

Applications

Artificial intelligence researchers develop automated inference systems to emulate human inference Industrial applications under the form of expert systems Recently automatic reasoners found in semantic web a new field of application. Being based upon first-order logic, knowledge expressed using one variant of OWL can be logically processed Computer games, IVRS, educational and tutorial software

COMPUTER GAMES