Intrinsic and Doped semiconductors & p-n junction

Objective

Electrical properties of metals.

Electrical properties of semiconductors.

p-n junction.

Diodes
Non-linear circuit element. The analysis of circuits involves approximations. It is not possible to fabricate non-linear circuits using only linear elements. In-depth study of electronics requires more emphasis on physical principles. Electric properties of semiconductor.

Classification of matter
On the basis of electrical properties of matter : Metals electric conductor. Insulators electric insulator. Semiconductor exhibits property of conductor & insulator.

Inside the metal

Conductivity is due to the presence of valence electrons (free electrons). Due to thermal energy, the valence electrons are in continuous motion inside the crystal. Motion of the electrons is random due to inelastic collisions with the ions.. contd

Inside the metal (contd)

Average distance between two collisions is called mean free path (m). Without voltage the electron average current is zero. Application of voltage results in an electric field (V/m) inside the metal. contd

Inside the metal

The speed of electrons due to electric field is called drift speed (u, m/s) which is u = . where is the mobility of electrons (units are m2/V-s)

Definitions
Current :- Rate of flow of charge is called current (i, A). Current density :- The current flowing through a material of unit cross section area (J, A/m2). Resistance :- The property of a material which opposes the flow of current through it (R, ).

Let
L be length of conductor (m). A be cross-sectional area of metal (m2). N be no. of electrons in a section of metal conductor. Q be electron charge (C).

be conductivity of metal (/m).

be resistivity of metal (-m).

Obtaining expressions
Current, Current density, Resistance, i = (N.q.u) / L J = . R = (.L) /A

Note :- Value of resistance must be specified at a temperature.

Consider a case
Let A copper wire with a cross- sectional area of1 (mm2 or 10-6 m2) carry a current of 0.4 A. The conductivity of copper at 20C (293 K) is 05.78x107 /m. The free-electron concentration is 8.43 x 1028 m-3. Find i) Electric field strength E ii) Resistance of the Cu. wire

Solution
Drift speed of the free electron is u = J / (n.q) = i / (n.q.A) = 2.97 x 10-5 (m/s) Mobility of free electrons is = / n.q = 4.29 x 10-3 (m2/V-s) Electric field strength is E = u / = 6.92 x 10-3 (V/m) Resistance of Cu wire is R = L / .A = 17.3 (m)

The classification
Free electron concentration (n) at 300K 1. 2. 3. 4. 1028 /m3 1.5 x 1016 /m3 2.5 x 1019 /m3 107 /m3 Metals Silicon Germanium Insulator

Semiconductor
Silicon and Germanium. Atom has four valence electrons which form covalent bond with adjacent atoms in crystal. The crystal has low conductivity below room temperature.

Inside semiconductor crystal

At room temperature, the covalent bonds break, dislodging the valence electrons, creating Holes.

The Hole-electron pairs are created. Recombination occurs. In a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor, free-electron concentration, n = Hole concentration, p

Recombination

It occurs when a free electron fills a Hole.

Due to thermal energy, new Hole-electron pairs are continually being generated. Recombination is a continuous process.

Difference between metal & semiconductor

Metal 1. Conduction is due to electrons, unipolar. 2. J = n.q.. Semiconductor 1. Conduction is due to electrons and holes, bipolar.

2. J = (n.n + p.p).q. J=. 3. Conductivity decreases 3. Conductivity increases with increase in temperature. with increase in temperature.

Doping of semiconductors
Allows increasing conductivity of semiconductor crystal. When an impurity is added to a semiconductor crystal, it is said to be doped semiconductor. Impurity is small amount of element, called dopant, atoms of pentavalent or trivalent elements. Doping is accomplished using sophisticated technology.

Mass-Action law
According to mass-action law, regardless of the amount of doping of a semiconductor, under thermal equilibrium n.p = ni2 where n is the free-electron concentration. p is the hole concentration. ni is the intrinsic concentration.

Therefore
Doped semiconductor must be electrically neutral, under thermal equilibrium. For n-type semiconductor, n > > p.

n ND

and

p ni2 / ND

where ND is concentration of donor atoms/ions. For n-type semiconductor, = n.q. n J = n.q.n.E = .E

Similarly
For p-type semiconductor, p > > n. p NA and n ni2 / NA

where NA is concentration of acceptor atoms.

For p-type semiconductor, J = n.q.pE = .E = n.q.p

Graded Semiconductors
Doping results in concentration gradient. The current density J for a semiconductor is J = (n.n + p.p).q. = . This states that it is possible to obtain current in a semiconductor as a result of the influence of an electric field. Also transport of electric charge can be facilitated by creating non-uniform concentration of electric charge (concentration gradient). The semiconductor is said to be graded.

Diffusion constant
The concentration gradient results in diffusion of charges (a result of statistical phenomenon). The concentration of holes, p, is a function of distance x. The hole current density is proportional to the concentration gradient. Jp = -q.Dp.dp /dx where Dp is the diffusion constant for holes (unit is m2/s).

Einstein equation
The electron current density is Jn = q.Dn.dn /dx where Dn is the diffusion constant for electrons (unit is m2/s) Diffusion and mobility are related to each other by Einstein Equation Dn / n = Dp / p = (K.T) / q where K = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K (Boltzmann constant).

T is temperature in K.
q = 1.6 x 10-19 C.

Volt equivalent of temperature, VT

VT = (K.T) / q = T / 11586 T / 11600
Difference in potentials between points x1 and x2 in the semiconductor depends on the hole or electron concentrations at the two points and not on the distance between the two points. contd

Volt equivalent of temperature, VT

Or p1 = p2.e(v21/vT) n1 = n2.e(-v21/vT) p1.n1 = n2.p2

Since n = p = ni for an intrinsic semiconductor, n.p = ni2

Mass-Action law for intrinsic semiconductor

Under thermal equilibrium, the product of n & p is always the same and independent of the position of points in the crystal and amount of doping.
For intrinsic semiconductor, n = p = ni n.p = ni2 (mass-action law).

For graded semiconductor

Let v1 & v2 be potentials at x1 & x2 and p1 & p2 are hole concentrations at x1 & x2. Then, the potential difference at point x2 due to hole concentration at x1 is v21 = v2 v1 = VT.{ln(p1) ln(p2)} = VT.ln(p1/p2) v21/VT = ln(p1/p2) p1/p2 = e(v21/VT) p1 = p2.e(v21/VT) contd

For graded semiconductor (contd)

Similarly, in terms of electron concentration, n, we obtain n1 = n2. e-(v21/VT)

contd

For graded semiconductor

We have n1 = n2. e-(v21/VT) p1 = p2.e(v21/VT) n1.p1 = n2.p2

By mass-action law, n.p = ni2 Therefore, graded semiconductor is electrically neutral.

The p-n junction

Single crystal with p-doping on one half and n-doping on other half forms a p-n junction. It is called a step-graded semiconductor. If the hole concentration for p-type material is uniform, then pp NA and np ni2/NA Similarly for n-type nn ND and pp ni2/ND contd

The p-n junction (contd)

In general, there is difference in concentrations between the two sides with the concentrations at the junction is zero. Electric potential at a point inside the semiconductor depends on charge concentration at that point. As a result, there is potential difference across the boundary called p-n junction. contd

The p-n junction

The potential difference v0 is called barrier potential or built in voltage across p-n junction. v0= VT.ln(p1/p2) = VT.ln (pp/pn) v0= VT.ln(n1/n2) = VT.ln(nn/np) Substituting for pp and pn v0= VT.ln[NA/(ni2/ND)] = VT.ln(NA ND/ni2) where v0 is barrier potential or built-in potential VT is volt equivalent of temperature =T K/11586

Summary
The barrier potential, v0 depends on

1. doping level
2. temperature 3. acceptor concentration

4. donor concentration
5. type of semiconductor