QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Crudely defined in opposition to traditional methods of quantitative Survey Research:

i) Survey methods impose meanings; QR discover meanings

ii) Survey methods insensitive to social nature of language; QR is a learning language process
iii) Survey destroys naturalistic setting of real life; QR attempts to preserve it.

iv) Surveys utilise third or fourth hand information; QR attempts to get first hand information

METHODS USED BY QR
Observation Textual analysis

Four Major Methods

Transcripts
Interviews

Qualitative and Quantitative Methodologies and Methods

Methodology ________________________________________________ Method Qualitative Quantitative _______________________________________________________________
Observation Preliminary work eg. Prior to framing questionnaire Content analysis, ie. Counting in terms of researchers categories Survey research: mainly fixedchoice questions to random samples Used infrequently to check the accuracy of interviews records Fundamental to understanding another culture Understanding participants categories (document, media) Open-endedquestions to small samples

Textual Analysis

Interviews

Transcripts

Used to understand how participants organise their talk (transcription of audio/video recording)

(Silverman, 1993: Interpreting Qualitative Data)

DATA COLLECTION

Structured or open ended depending on the purpose of the interview, the researchers familiarity with and knowledge about the setting, and the exploratory or confirmatory nature of the study

Interview Provides a method for collecting data imbedded in the interpretations, perceptions, and experiences of respondents

DATA COLLECTION

Nonparticipation Observation researcher is not directly engaged in activities and central behaviours within the situation under study

Observation
Participation Observation Individual conducting the investigation participates in the setting/activities being observed Provides a direct method to record human behaviour and events as they occur

DATA COLLECTION

Minutes of meetings, newspaper and magazine articles, diaries, videotapes, audiotapes, memoranda and correspondence
Existing Documents or Archival Research Archival records add data that are independent of the researchers presence, interpretation, or preexisting theories

STANDARDS OF RIGOR
As with other research designs, qualitative researchers must ask specific questions regarding conceptualization and research process in order to assure trustworthiness of a study. QUESTION QUALITATIVE TERM 1. Is it the right thing Appropriateness to do; is it needed? 2. Can we trust the Unbiased researchers? 3. Do the results stand Dependable up; same results with repetition? 4. Can it be used in various Generalizable settings/situation free? 5. Are the results subject Credible/Authentic to contamination? QUANTITATIVE TERM Problem Significance Objective Reliable

External Validity Internal Validity

STANDARD OF RIGOR
Reliability in Qualitative designs has much the same general meaning as it does in quantitative design ie. Under similar circumstances, can the study be replicated with similar results? Are the results an accurate reflection of what actually occurred? Internal Reliability means the objectivity is maintained and the findings will be similar within the site eg in a given group of youths, a researcher describing social patterns can expect that expectations, beliefs etc. will be similar among those who belong to the group. External Reliability suggests a relicability of concepts across and between sites. Designs across sites such as comparative case studies make it possible for researchers to describe patterns existing in broader social environments and describe more abstract and general concepts related to specific findings.

INTERNAL RELIABILITY
5 steps that can help the qualitative researcher protect internal reliability
Use low inference descriptors Use multiple researchers whenever possible Create a careful audit trail (record of data that can be followed by another scholar back from conclusions to the raw data) Use mechanical recording devices where possible (and with permission) Use participant researchers or informants to check the accuracy or congruence of perceptions.

EXTERNAL RELIABILITY
Procedures that can help protect external reliability Clearly specify the researchers status or position so that readers know exactly what point of view drove the data collection Clearly state who informants are (or what role they play in the natural context) and how and why they are selected or chosen (while maintaining confidentiality) Carefully delineate the context or setting boundaries and characteristics so that a reader can make judgements about similar circumstances or settings Define the analytic constructs that guided the study (describe specific conceptual frameworks used in design and deductive analysis) Specify the data collection and analysis procedures meticulously

STANDARDS OF RIGOR
Validity in qualitative research captures the accuracy or truthfulness of the findings. 1. Duration and intensity of data gathering assure that a plethora of important events and details is recorded over time involving all the participants in the group and in many situations and combinations. Prevents unique or unrepresentative events from receiving unwarrented attention.

2. Rich and supportive data from a variety of sources rich description and valid analysis
Lecompte and Goetz (1982): Validity to be the strength of qualitative research, because it sets findings in the natural settings, free from contaminating effects of control or variable manipulation. Miles & Huberman (1994); Trustworthiness, credibility, authenticity

GUARDING AGAINST SPURIOUS CONCLUSIONS

Asking for participants feedback and reaction to emerging themes or conclusions (checking with the participant) Maintaining contact with all the participants in the setting and avoiding isolation Maintaining contact neutrality and objectivity by avoiding forming close or personal relationships with a few participants Disengaging from or leaving the site during the final analysis Seeking independent corroboration of data and analysis from multiple informants Using multiple sources of data (documents, observations, interviews) Deliberately seeking disconfirming evidence of negative cases as conclusions begin to coelesce Asking colleagues and peers to examine and review data and to audit emerging findings and conclusions to see if they follow logically backward to the data Keeping a research journal that describes the research process in detail and the researchers feelings and affective responses

TYPES/FORMS OF DATA ANALYSIS

i) ii) iii) Characteristics of language eg. Ethnomethodology; discourse analysis (how interaction takes place ? Paper, interviewsetc.) Discoveries of regularities pattern making; thematic analysis; grounded theories (reconstruct data) Understanding the meaning of texts or action narrative analysis; ethnographic analysis; thick description (what it signifies, description to generate new theory) Descriptive theory remains implicit (thick description) Providing interpretations, explanations or propositions (thematic analysis) Developing/testing theory developing and verifying a theoretical account (grounded theory)

iv) v)

vi)

BASIC PROCESS OF QA FOR FIELD DATA

Data/Description

Classifying/Categorising data: Fragmenting data and labelling to make sense of it (Coding 1st. Level analysis)

Connecting categories: Linking data categories together (Pattern coding/making: 2nd. Level analysis)

CATEGORISING DATA: CODING

Codes: applied to a phrase, sentence or paragraph in order to classify words (data/description)and pulls data together eg. Observation A resonates with Observation B form a code/put codes to recurring activities TYPES OF CODING Descriptive Codes: summarise a segment of data (used early in the analysis Interpretative Codes: meaning attributed to segment of data Inferential/Explanatory (Pattern Codes):Denote an emergent pattern or theme (usually developed later or during analysis)

ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. * Preliminary Analysis Team Meetings Data Summaries Post Data - Gathering Analysis Coding and Counting (Quasi statistics) Data Summary Sheets Matrices comparison among variables, factors or emerging themes are facilitated by the use of other data displays or analysis Graphs and Charts Pattern Matching Can use computers to analyse data to facilitate what have been done manually word processing program; data base managers; spreadsheets; graphics or qualitative software programs (Ethnograph, QUALPRO, Hyper-Qual

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH STRATEGIES

Action Research Case Study Clinical research Cognitive Anthropology Content Analysis Descriptive Research Naturalistic Inquiry Participation Observation Field Study Document Study Life History