Fundamentals of Communications

15: Radio Channels

EE3158
Professor Ian Groves
ian.groves@kcl.ac.uk www.ctr.kcl.ac.uk/members

Radio Channels
Frequency & Wavelength Classification & Use Modes of Propagation Propagation Mechanisms Atmospheric Attenuation Propagation Models Fading Channels Bateman p 94 Multipath Noise Bateman p 90

Lecture 15

Frequency & Wavelength

Fundamental relationship

c f
where
c = velocity of light 3x108 metres/sec f = frequency (Hz) = wavelength (m)
Frequency Wavelength 1 MHz 300 m 3 MHz 30 m 30 MHz 10 m 100 MHz 3m 300 MHz 1m 1 GHz 30 cm 3 GHz 10 cm

Lecture 15

Classification of Radio Use

3 30 kHz
Very low frequency (VLF) long range navigation, sonar

30 300 kHz
Low frequency (LF) navigational aids, beacons, broadcast

300 3000 kHz

Medium frequency (MF) maritime radio, commercial AM radio

3 30 MHz
High frequency (HF) short wave radio for distance communications
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Classification of Radio Use 2

30 MHz 300 MHz
Very high frequency (VHF) FM radio, emergency services, taxi, navigation

0.3 3 GHz
Ultra high frequency (UHF) UHF television, mobile communications (900 MHz , 2 GHz)

3 30 GHz
Super high frequency (SHF) satellite communications, radar systems, microwave links

Lecture 15

Modes of Propagation

Ground wave medium wave broadcast Sky wave HF bands 3 to 30 MHz Line of Sight (LOS) higher frequencies

Lecture 15

Propagation Mechanisms
At low frequencies (long wavelengths) propagating radio waves tend to follow the earths surface. At higher frequencies they tend to travel in straight lines. At HF (3 30 MHz) radio waves are reflected by the ionosphere:
a series of layers of charged particles, ionised by radiation from the sun, at between 30 and 250 miles about the earths surface and known as D, E and F layers. Coalesce at night gives longer skip distances.
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Radio Propagation 2
Above 300 MHz propagation is by line of sight. Higher still, above 3 GHz say, atmospheric gases (mainly oxygen), water vapour and precipitation (rain!) absorb and scatter radio waves.
23 GHz water vapour resonance 62 GHz oxygen absorption

Care needed in design of microwave links and ground to satellite links.

Lecture 15

Atmospheric Attenuation

a) attenuation caused by atmospheric gases

note molecular resonance peaks

b) attenuation caused by rain

can increase path loss by an order of magnitude ( 10 x)

Lecture 15

Propagation Models
Free space path loss
isotropic (equal in all directions) radiator of power Pt power flow through surface at distance d = Pt / 4pd2 watts/m2 [power/surface area of sphere] power intercepted by antenna of effective area A, related to the gain by Gr = 4pA/2 received power Pr= A.Pt Gt / 4pd2 [Gt is transmit antenna gain] whence Pr / Pt = Gr Gt (/4pd)2 for unity gain antennas and loss in dB, using f = c/ L = 32 + 20log fMHz + 20log dkm
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Propagation Models2
Inverse square law
received power decreases by 6dB each time we double the distance. The transmission loss also increases as the square of the frequency, double the frequency increase the loss by 6dB.

Real world effects, presence of

atmosphere earth trees buildings hills

close to the transmission path.

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Direct and Reflected Waves

two antennas height h1 and h2 separated by d, where d>>h1/h2. path difference = 2 h1h2/d (use Pythagorus & binomial expansion) phase difference = 2 h1h2/d .2p/ 4p h1h2 / d
Lecture 15 12

Direct and Reflected Waves 2

As we change the antenna height or the distance (a moving mobile) we will get constructive and destructive interference between our direct and reflected wave causing fading, the depth of which will depend on the magnitude of the reflection coefficient, r, for the reflected wave. [r=1 below]

Lecture 15

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Real Channel

In a practical mobile radio cell the received signal is the sum of many reflected or multipath components. If each of these is independent then the statistics of their sum is described by a Rayleigh distribution.
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Rayleigh Distribution

mean nearly equal to standard deviation (s) larger tail than normal distribution deep fade p > 3s
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Propagation Models3
CCIR developed a propagation model for broadcast radio and television: Ldb = 40log(d) - 20 log(h1h2) an inverse 4th power law [all distances in metres] modified to include the effects of:
surface roughness line of sight obstacles buildings and trees

Ldb = 40log(d) - 20 log(h1h2) + b where b represent these additional losses and usually established empirically.
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Practical Results

Mobile channels are not optimised for line of sight reception, the path loss is continually changing.
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Practical Results 2

within the city (clutter) environment we see not only fast (Rayleigh) fading but a second distance dependent fade with Gaussian like characteristics. Slow or log-normal fading L = (10 x n)log(d) + a(d)

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Delay Spreads
Discussion so far relates to the transmission of an unmodulated carrier. For a digital mobile system we are concerned with the delay spread of our channel resulting from the multipath reflected signals. A single transmitted pulse will be spread in time when it reaches the receiver and if this spread is comparable with the symbol length we will get Inter Symbol Interference ISI.

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Mobile Channel Summary

inverse 4th power law for path loss is a good approximation many empirical models proposed and used
e.g. Okumura and Hata

continually varying loss - fast fading / Rayleigh statistics shadow fading with distance (slow fading) caused by buildings and other obstacles significant delay spread caused by multipath reception requiring channel equalisers A pretty hostile environment!
Lecture 15 20

Noise Limited Channels

Thermal noise occurs in both media and communications equipment. It arises from random electron motion and is characterised by a uniform distribution of energy over the frequency spectrum with a Gaussian distribution of levels. Amount of thermal noise in 1 Hz of bandwidth:
Pn = kT (W/Hz) where k is Boltzmanns constant 1.3803x 10-23 J/K T is absolute temperature

In a specified bandwidth B
Pn = kTB (W)
Lecture 15 21

Noise Limited Channels 2

Thermal noise sets the lower limit of sensitivity of a receiving system. example, at 17oC or 290 oK in a bandwidth of 1 MHz Pn = kTB
= 1.3803x10-23 x 290 x 1.0x106 = 4.0x10-15 Watts

Often expressed with respect to 1 milliwatt (10-3 W) i.e. 10 log (4.0x10-15/10-3) or -114 dBm dBm power reference 1 milliwatt

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Power and Loss

Example: a transmitter of 2 W output on 30 m mast transmits to a mobile receiver height 2 m over a distance of 15 km. If the bandwidth is 200 kHz, temperature 17oC, what is the receiver signal to noise ratio? Tx power is 2 W = 10 log (2/10-3) = 33 dBm Path loss Ldb = 40log(d) - 20 log(h1h2) - slide 16 = 40 log (15,000) -20 log (30 x 2) = 132 dB Rx power = 33-132 =-99 dBm kTB = 1.3803x10-23 x 290 x 2.0x105 = 8.0x10-16 W = -121 dBm. Thus S/N is -99 - (-121) = 22 dB
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Radio Channel Topics

frequency / wavelength relation modes of propagation simple one path reflection model that mobile channels:
loss can be approximated by inverse 4th power low fade have delay spread

thermal noise limitation - kTB simple loss power / calculations

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