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E. T. Masih
70
Cruise Control
Control Signal
Position Control
The purpose of a position control system is to move a load to a certain position or series of positions. The motion might be purely rotary movement as shown in the figure where a missile guidance radar is turned by hydraulic motor In other cases, it may be desirable to convert rotary motion to linear motion as shown in the figure. The hydraulic motor turns a ball or lead screw to move the table.
Hydraulic Motor
Position Control
Ball screws (lead screw) are typically used when very high positional accuracies are needed. One rotation of the motor will move the table a distance equal to the width of one thread on the ball screw, this called PITCH If the Pitch of the ball screw is 0.2 inch, then one rotation of the motor will move the table 0.2 inches. One rotation of the motor equals 360 degrees. If we can control the rotation of the motor to 10 then we can control the motion of the table to within 1/360th of 0.2 inches. 1 0.2 x 360 = 0.00056 inch In order to control the hydraulic actuator in these applications, a valve is required which will, first of all make the actuator move forward, move backward and stop.
Position Control
If a sliding spool valve is used, we can represent this basic requirement with three position valve as shown in the figure. Since all the valve require interface with Digital Controller (PLCs) so the valves need to be electrically operated There are different Industrial applications for which a wide range of valves are available from simple On/Off solenoid valves to Proportional valves, Servo Valves and Microprocessor driven valves.
Position Control
The selection of the valve is dependent on the accuracy requirements and the level of sophistication involved in the control strategy.
t
P T
Flow P to B
Flow in both direction is either fully On or Fully OFF. A typical Position Control System using ON/OFF solenoid Valve is shown above. Depending on the size of the valve, RESPONSE TIMES can range from 20 mSec to 100 mSec.
Secondary
A high frequency (1000 Hz) signal is fed to the primary coil, which creates a magnetic field in the core. This AC signal is usually produced by a DC Oscillator device, which can be built into the housing of the LVDT. The output of the secondary coil can again be converted to DC by using a demodulator.
Amplifier
Input Potentiometer
Servo Valves:
These are strictly Infinite continuous position / Force control valves and they essentially work with Close Loop Control strategy
Force controlled Solenoids consists of modified DC solenoids, which provide linear adjustable forces by altering the current signal to the solenoid
Current Control Voltage
Force
Amplifier
This linear relationship of force output to current input works effectively over strokes of about 0.06 inch, (1.5 mm).
800 mA
600 mA
Force (Lbs)
400 mA 200 mA
Stroke
To System
Signal Input
Main Valve
Main Valve
These Four Port valves are the most versatile valves among all types of valves.
The spool configuration is modified to provide precise metering in the inlet and outlet sections of the valve. This valve can meter oil in both directions and also provide equal pressure drop in both sides, this ability provide good controllability of Hydraulic Cylinders and Motors.
With conventional valving, such controllability is sometime not possible even when as many as six to seven valves are used.
P to B A to T
P to A B to T
P to B A to T
P to A B to T
P to B A to T
P to A B to T
Conversely, the Cap-end delivers twice the volume of oil that flows into the Head-end. If an equal area closed or restricted center spool is used to control a cylinder with 2: 1 area ratio, the pressure drop across the valve is likely to be unequal in both directions.
This condition can lead to serious cylinder control problems.
Closed Center
P - A= Q, B - T= Q P - B= Q, A - T= Q
P A T B Closed Center
Motor/Cylinder spool (with cylinder area ratio close to 1:1) Cylinder spool (with cylinder area ratio close to 2:1) Cylinder spool (with cylinder area ratio close to 2:1)
P - A= Q, B T= Q/2 P - B= Q/2, A- T= Q
P A T B Closed Center
T
B Closed Center
P A= Q, B T= Blocked P B= Q/2, A T= Q
P T
Regenerative Spool
Suitable to be used for regenerative circuits where extension speed is required to be equal to the retracted speed.
P to B A to T
P to A B to T
+V
An input signal corresponding to the desired actuator position is fed into the Amplifier.
Proportional Valve
0V
10 V
Feedback +10V
e
Input 0 to +10 V Amplifier
As the cylinder moves the load, a feedback signal (voltage) is sent from the potentiometer.
The feedback signal is received by the amplifier at the SUMMING JUNCTION. The summing junction subtracts the feedback signal from the input signal (Command Signal) to produce the ERROR SIGNAL. At any instant of time, the ERROR signal is proportional to Input Command signal minus Feedback Signal.
The feedback signal is connected to an INVERTING input on the amplifier.This serves to invert the feedback signal (reverse its polarity from Plus To Minus voltage).
This is done so that the Summing Junction can subtract feedback voltage from command voltage by summing a positive command with a negative feedback.
Input Signal
+5V
0V
Switch Closed
After a fraction of a second when +5 V input is applied, the cylinder has not yet responded, though the input is +5 V and the feedback is 0V. The error signal will therefore be +5V, causing the amplifier to produce a corresponding output to the valve solenoid, which will cause the spool to shift providing oil through valve. But the actual rate of flow and therefore the speed of cylinder (LOAD) motion will now be determined by several other factors, which are given below -
Consider, though, what would happen after 1 second, it would move 8 inches, but after moving 8 in, the feedback signal will be 8 inches X 0.25 V/in = 2 Volts
If we assume that there is a direct relationship between Input Command signal and flow through the valve, then the flow (Cylinder speed) will now be 3/5th of what it was when we started. The speed is now 8 inches/second X 3 Volts = 4.8 inches/second 5 Volts
The next second , the cylinder will travel only 4.8 in , for a total movement of 8 inches + 4.8 inches = 12.8 inches
As we can observe, the cylinder starts at a maximum speed but continually slows down as it gets closer to its commanded position
20.0 in
15.7 in
12.8 in 8.0 in
Time (Seconds)
Derivative Control
The biggest problem with Proportional Control alone is that improving response time and avoiding overshoot and ripples is not possible.
Responding quickly suggests high Proportional Gain, minimizing overshoot and oscillations suggests small Proportional Gain. Achieving both at the same time may not be possible in all Systems.
But we can derive information about the rate of change of the process OUTPUT. If the OUTPUT is changing rapidly. We can reduce the size of the change suggested by the Proportional Control.
Derivative Control
The rate of change of signal is also known as its DERIVATIVE The derivative at the current time is simply the CHANGE in value from the previous value to the current value. This implies that we should subtract a change D x (Current Value - Previous Value)
Where D is a constant derivative gain. The only thing we need to do is to save the previous sampled value in memory.
In practice, Proportional-Derivative(PD) controllers work well
The net effect is slightly slower response with far less overshoot & ripples than a proportional controller alone.
Integral Control
Remaining problem is that PD control alone will not always settle exactly to the desired OUTPUT. The problem occurs if each error remain below the threshold for action by the proportional term. The derivative term wont help unless the output is changing, Some thing else needs to drive the plant towards the setpoint and that is INTEGRAL TERM. An integral is sum over time. The sum of all past errors. I x (Set Value Actual Value) t Where I is the Integral Gain, Integral is sum over time.
Input
G
Transfer Function
Output
Equation # 1
For example, suppose that we have to represent a 4 is to 1 reduction gear box Input Speed . 4:1 Output Speed
Reduction Gearbox
Since the input and output both are SPEED, the transfer function is just a multiplication factor. For example, if the input speed were 500 RPM, the output speed would be:
The input to the Pump is the drive speed (RPM) .The output is the flow rate (in3 /min), The transfer function is:
G =
Output Input = 1950 in3/min 1000 rev/min = 1.95 in3/rev
The transfer function does not give a math model of the component under all possible dynamic conditions.
Note: It is important to apply common sense to use transfer function.
Input (I)
Output (O)
G
Feedback (F)
H
This system has three basic components
. . 1. Summing Junction 2. Forward Transfer Function (G) 3. Feedback Transfer Function (H)
We can simplify our view of Closed Loop System, by using and understanding its Open Loop Gain
0V
10 V
Feedback
+10V
Input 0 to +10 V
Amplifier Amplifier
Amplifier
GAMP
Cylinder
GSV
Input Feedback
GCYL
LOAD
HFB
Feedback Potentiometer
Feedback
Amplifier 1000ma/V
Input 0 to +10 V
volts sec ma
in2
in
= 25/sec
Open Loop Gain is also referred to a Velocity Constant or Velocity Error Constant, since it affects the systems speed response.
System Response
A closed loop Position Control system might react to a step change in input as shown below Command Position Output Movement (t)
The output CURVE is not a straight-line response but an EXPONENTIAL CURVE. The curve rises rapidly initially (high velocity) but gradually levels off. This is because the error signal is reducing with motion.
System Response
As the actuator approaches command position, the error signal gets smaller, closing the valve more & more. An important part of an Exponential Curve is a variable known as Time Constant, denoted by the Greek word (tau)
Time Constant
Output Movement 1
Initial Slop
(t)
One Time Constant is the amount of time it would take for the curve to reach final value if it continued at its initial rate of movement.
System Response
Because the curve gradually levels off, the actual time to reach the command value (within 1%) is actually equal to 5 TIME CONSTANTS. The value of one time constant can be calculated from the expression given below -
X0 =
= in
.....equation #4
System Response
The initial velocity V0 can be calculated by V0 = I. (GAMP) (GSV) (GCYL)
.....equation #5
=
Therefore -
X0 V0
System Response
As per the equation #2
1 KV
..equation #7
This equation directly proves that there is a relationship between the system response () and the open loop gain of the system (KV). If the gain is increased, the time constant is reduced, producing faster response.
EXAMPLE:
System Response
We will use the previous system to calculate how long it will take to respond to a 0.2 volt step input. We will assume that maximum valve drive current fro the amplifier is 250 ma and the amplifier gain (GAMP) is 1000 ma/volt.
20 inches (50 cm)
Feedback
Amplifier
Input 0 to +10 V
System Response
The input is a 0.2 volt step, and amplifier gain is 1000 ma/volt, the amplifier output will be 0.2 volts x 1000 ma/volt = 200 ma
KV =
Therefore,
25/sec 1 = . 25
1 KV
= 0.04 sec
System Response
Limitations of Proportional GAIN
If faster response is needed, then the value of the Open Loop Gain has to be increased, resulting in a lower time constant. This is usually done by increasing the Gain of the Amplifier. As the cylinder Velocity increases, the effects of load inertia become more significant. Increasing the GAIN beyond a certain point will cause the cylinder to OVERSHOOT the commanded position. This may be followed by a series of gradually decreasing Undershoots and Overshoots until the system settles at the commanded position.
System Response
Limitations of Proportional GAIN
In some cases, a gain that is too high can cause the system to go UNSTABLE. This is a situation where the undershoots and overshoots do not die out, but get worse, resulting in loss of control of the LOAD
Command position Output movement
(t) 1 2 3 4 5
Command position
Output movement
System Response
The maximum practical GAIN value that ensures system STABILITY and acceptable settling time is determined by -
System Response
The Damping Coefficient () x-ee:
This is a measure of how much energy the system can dissipate to reduce oscillations. Natural damping in the system tends to reduce oscillations and limit the loop gain.
System Response
Damping Coefficient:
The damping factors are very difficult to predict accurately without actual measurement, and usually change over time. Mechanical friction and hydraulic leakage (across piston seals & valve spools etc.) are the main contributors to damping coefficient.
The damping coefficient in a Hydraulic System is normally between 0.05 and 0.3, with the value of 0.2 being a good trial value for use in initial calculations.
System Response
Natural Frequency of the Load
The Loads Mass (M) and the actuator Hydraulic Stiffness (CH) are usually combined into one convenient factor, referred to as the LOAD NATURAL FREQUENCY or L The relationship between M, CH and L
L =
CH
..equation #8
The actuator hydraulic stiffness may have to take into account the mechanical stiffness of the mounting. For Example, the presence of rubber mount or shock absorbing devices will tend to decrease actuator stiffness.
System Response
Natural Frequency of the System (S)
In order to establish the Natural Frequency of the System, we have to carefully look into the Natural frequency of the Load, Hydraulic Valve and the Feedback Transducer. We need to know S because we can use it to ensure that our system will not become unstable. A very useful mathematical relationship can be established with Open Loop Gain & the Natural Frequency of the System.
KV 2 S
..equation #9
System Response
Natural Frequency of the System (S)
If we want to ensure that the System does not become UNSTABLE, we will have to choose of KV less than 2 S. However, a very conservative gain setting may result in a long settling time.
To ensure acceptable settling time while ensuring stability, the maximum value of GAIN should be set to -
KV (max) = S
..equation #10
Hydraulic Stiffness
For all practical purposes Hydraulic Fluid has always been regarded as INCOMPRESSABLE but this is not absolutely correct.
Hydraulic Fluid under pressure does compress, in much the same way as a SPRING.
Hydraulic Stiffness
For Slow Moving and lightly Loaded systems, the amount of compression is very small and it can be ignored. In Fast Moving Servo Systems with high Dynamic Loads, the fluid compression effect can not be IGNORED. In fact, the stiffness of the hydraulic fluid may become the limiting factor in the overall performance of the system. To maximize system performance, the stiffness of the fluid should be as high as possible. Factors that affect STIFFNESS of an actuator are basically its SIZE, SHAPE & TYPE of FLUID used,
Hydraulic Stiffness
The stiffness of the actuator is determined by The area of the Piston
Hydraulic Stiffness
The Bulk Modulus, E, is a measure of how easily the fluid can be compressed. The lower the value, the more compressible the fluid is. Typical value of the Bulk Modulus of Hydraulic Oil is:
E = 2 x 105 lbf/in2
..equation #11
The stiffness (Also called Spring Rate) of the actuator can be calculated from the formula given below:
E(A1)2 CH = V(in3)
..equation #12
Hydraulic Stiffness
Whether the valve used is a Servo or Proportional, flow will normally be metered in & out of the cylinder in both direction of movement. Both P to A & B to T flow paths are restricted, and both sides of the piston will be pressurized during movement.
Side 1 Side 2
LOAD
Hydraulic Stiffness
C1
Mass of Piston
C2
M
Stiffness of fluid on Side 1 & 2
Hydraulic Stiffness
Hydraulic Stiffness can act either in series or in parallel. The simplest way to view the concept of stiffness is to look at it as a spring
To find the total effect of two or more springs, they are combined in the same way as capacitors in electrical circuit. In case of a Hydraulic cylinder, the stiffness of the two sides of the cylinder act in parallel. Therefore, the total stiffness (CH) is C1+ C2
Series Stiffness C1 C2
M M
C1
CH =
C1 C2 C1 + C2 C2
Parallel Stiffness
CH = C1 + C2
..equation #13
Hydraulic Stiffness
CH in a linear actuator is expressed in unit of lbf/in.
V1 A1 A2 V2
In order to consider the stiffness of the system, it VL1 is necessary to include not only the volume of Valve fluid in the actuator, but also the fluid in the pipe lines between the cylinder and the valve, since the fluid in the lines is also under pressure.
VL2
Total Stroke S
As shown in the Figure, the volume of fluid in the hydraulic lines between the valve and the cylinder are referred to as VL1 and VL2 , V1 and V2 represent cylinder volume itself.
Hydraulic Stiffness
While VL1 and VL2 will remain almost constant, V1 and V2 will change constantly as the piston moves along its stroke. If S represent the total stroke of the cylinder, and X0 is the initial stroke at a given time, then V1 = A1 (X0) V2 = A2 (S - X0) Using equation 12 & 13, we can now figure out ..equation #14
Hydraulic Stiffness
Total volume on side 1 & side 2 V = VL1 + V1 and V = VL2 + V3 Side 1 and Side 2 Stiffness (Using equation No.12) C1 = E (A1)2 VL1 + V1 C2 = E (A2)2 VL2 + V2
(A2)2 (A1)2 CH = E V + V + V + V L2 2 L1 1
..equation #15
Hydraulic Stiffness
Stiffness CH Stroke (S)
(Retracted)
(Extended)
As the piston moves, V1 and V2 changes constantly, causing stiffness to change constantly, figure shows the stiffness variation for an unequal area cylinder. Stiffness is highest at either end of the stroke.
CH
M
fL
time
Initial Movement
The oscillations get smaller and eventually die down due to air resistance and friction in the spring.
How fast the system will oscillate depends on the stiffness of the spring and the mass attached to the spring. Stiffer the spring more oscillations, larger the mass less oscillations.
The FREQUENCY of the OSCILLATIONS, for any combination of spring & mass, is referred to as the NATURAL FREQUENCY of the system.
A hydraulic cylinder will react in the same manner, If the mass is disturbed, it will oscillate, the oscillations will eventually die out due to friction & leakage.
In the case of hydraulic cylinder, the SPRING is provided by the compressibility of the oil in the cylinder.
L =
..equation #16
Where: L = natural frequency (rad/sec) CH = hydraulic stiffness (lbf/inch) M = mass of the load (lbf. Sec2/inch)
Conversion factor for converting Hz to rad/sec Hz to rad/sec: f = /2 rad/sec to Hz: = 2f Using the Hz to rad/sec conversion factor, we can convert rad/sec to Hz Here fL = Natural frequency (Hz)
fL =
1 2
CH M
..equation #17
..equation #18
fL =
..equation #19
Load (M)
S = 40 in (1000 mm)
Valve