FILTERS

A filter is a frequency selective circuit that select signals specified by a band of frequencies and blocks signals of frequencies outside the band Filter may be classified into number of ways. 1. Analog or digital 2. Passive or active 3. Audio or radio frequency

 Analog filters are designed to process only signals while digital filters process analog signals

using digital technique. Depending on the type of elements used in their consideration, filters may be classified as passive or active. Elements used in passive filters are resistors,capacitors and inductors. Active filters employ transistors or op-amps in addition to resistor and capacitors .Depending upon the element the frequency range is decided

 The band of frequencies that are allowed to

pass through a filter is called its pass band. The band of frequencies that are not allowed to pass though them is called stop band. The frequency that differentiates between pass band and stop band is called the cut off frequency.

 It is not possible to realize the ideal response of

a filter. Practical filters can be realized using mathematical functions specified filter approximation like Butterworth , chebyshev , elliptical etc. The key characteristics of a butterworth filter is that it has a flat pass band as well as stop band. The chebyshev filter has a ripple pass band and flat stop band. Elliptical filter has a ripple pass band and a ripple stop band.

 BUTTERWORTH 1st ORDER LOW PASS

FILTER BUTTERWORTH 1ST ORDER HIGH PASS FILTER BUTTERWORTH 1ST ORDER BAND PASS BUTTERWORTH 1ST ORDER BANDELIMINATION

Fig shows the frequency response characteristics of the five type of filter.The ideal response is shown by dashed line.While the solid lines indicates the practical filter response

 A low pass filter has a constant gain from 0

Hz to a high cutoff frequency fH. Therefore, the bandwidth is fH. At fH the gain is down by 3db. After that the gain decreases as frequency increases. The frequency range 0 to fH Hz is called pass band and beyond fH is called stop band.

1st ORDER LOW PASS BUTTERWORTH FILTER

Fig. 2, shows a first order low

pass Butter-worth filter that uses an RC network for filtering, opamp is used in noninverting configuration, R1 and Rf decides the gain of the filter

Thus the low pass filter has a nearly constant gain Af from 0 Hz to high cut off frequency fH. At fH the gain is 0.707 Af and after fH it decreases at a constant rate with an increases in frequency. fH is called cutoff frequency because the gain of filter at this frequency is reduced by 3dB

FILTER DESIGN
A low pass filter can be designed using the following steps:
Choose a value of high cutoff frequency fH. Select a value of C less than or equal to 1 F. Calculate the value of R using .R=1/2 Finally, select values of R1 and RF to set the desired gain using Af=1+Rf/R1

Butterworth 1st order high pass filter

1st order high pass filter with unity gain The 1st order high pass filter with unity gain i.e , with voltage follower is

shown.
The voltage transfer function for the ckt is H(s) = Vo(s)/Vi(s) = R/(R+1/sRC) H(jw) = 1/(1+j(wL/w)

wL= 1/RC Therefore H(jw) = 1 / (1+(wL/w)^2)

- +

H(jw) = 1/ (1+(fL/f)^2)

Vi

C R

1st order with variable gain The active high pass filter with a single RC network connected to non inverting terminal of the op-amp is shown. The input resistor Ri and feedback resistor Rf are used to determine the gain of the filter in the passband. At low frequencies,the capacitor appears open and the voltage gain approaches zero.At high frequencies the capacitor appears shorted and the circuit becomes a non-inverting amplifier with a voltage gain of 1+Rf/Ri. Vin VA / ( 1/ s C) = VA-0 / R

(Vin VA) s C =VA / R

VA = Vin ( s C R / (1+ s C R) ) Applying KCL at inveting node

0 VA / R1 = VA V0 / Rf
Vo = Vin * sCR / (1+ s CR) * (1+ Rf/R1)

The output voltage V0 of the 1st order active high pass filter is V0=(1+RF/R1)*(j2fRC)*Vin/(1+j2 fRC) Therefore the gain of the filter becomes V0/Vi = A( ( j f/f L ) / ( 1+j f/f L ) ) Where passband gain of the filter is A=1+Rf/Ri , f is the frequency of the input signal and the lower cut off frequency of the filter is fL = 1/2 RC. The frequency response of the filter is obtained from the magnitude of the filter, H(jf) = V0/Vi = A( f/fL)/(1+(fL/f)^2) F>fL , gain = A F= fL , gain falls to .707 times the max gain A. F< fL , gain decreases at a constant rate of -20 dB / decade. The range of frequency above fL is called the passband. The range of frequency below fL is called stop band.

The bandpass filters can be classified as

Wideband bandpass filter Narrow bandpass filter

Wideband bandpass filter

A bandpass filter can e constructed simply by connecting low pass and high pass filters in cascade as shown. Here the low-pass circuit will pass all frequencies up to its cut-off frequency f H , while the high-pass circuit will block all frequencies below its cut-off frequency f L ,provided f H> f L i. e f H must be at least 10 times f L LOW PASS+ HIGH PASS = BANDPASS

R1

Rf

R1
R C

Rf - +

- +

C R