Cast Irons

iron-carbon alloys with more than 2.11% carbon

It pass through the eutectic reaction during solidification.

Properties
Inexpensive Have good fluidity Have low liquidus temperature Readily castable

Cast Irons
typically cast iron contains 24% C and 0.53% Si Effect of Si
reduces the amount of carbon contained in the eutectic. carbon equivalent (CE): Enhances oxidation and corrosion resistance by forming a tight adhering surface oxide. It is a graphite stabilizing element.

Eutectic Reaction in Cast Irons Metastable phase diagram Stable rxn

Cast Irons
The microstructure of cast iron has two extremes
1. Liquid 2. Liquid austenite + Fe3C (white cast iron) austenite + graphite (gray, ductile)

graphite formation is promoted by

Slow cooling High C and Si content Heavy or thick section size Inoculation particles Presence of S, P, Al, Ni, Sn, Mn, Cu, Cobilt, antimony

Formation of cementite (Fe3C) is favored by

Fast cooling Low C and Si contents Thin sections Alloying elements, titanium, vanadium, zirconium, chromium, manganese, and molybdenum

Types of Cast Iron

Depending on chemical composition, cooling rate, types and amount of inoculants that are used we can have
a. b. c. d. e. Gray iron White iron Malleable iron Ductile iron Compacted graphite iron

 Gray cast iron

The least expensive and most common type Characterized by formation of graphite Typical composition ranges from 2.5-4.0% C, 1.0-3.0% Si, and 0.4-1.0% Mn. contains small, interconnected graphite flakes that cause low strength and ductility. It is the most widely used cast iron It is named for the dull gray color of the fractured surface. The gray irons are specified by a class number of 20 to 80.

Properties
high compressive strength, good machinability, good resistance to sliding wear, good resistance to thermal fatigue, good thermal conductivity, and good vibration damping.

 White cast iron

is a hard, brittle alloy containing massive amounts of Fe3C. A fractured surface of this material appears white, hence the name. Features promoting formation of cementite over graphite
A low carbon equivalent (1.8-3.6 %C, 0.5-1.9%Si, 0.25-0.8%Mn) and Rapid cooling

A group of highly alloyed white irons are used for their hardness and resistance to abrasive wear.

 Malleable cast iron

formed by the heat treatment (in range of 900C) of unalloyed 3%C white cast iron (carbon equivalent 2.5%C, 1.5%Si) the cementite dissociates into its component elements (graphite clumps, or nodules) It exhibits better ductility than gray or white cast irons. It is also very machinable.

The production steps first stage graphitization: cementite decomposes to the stable austenite and graphite phases second stage graphitization: slow cooling through eutectoid temperature to make ferritic malleable iron

 when austenite is cooled in air or oil Pearlitic malleable iron is obtained (pearlite or martensite.) Drawing: is a heat treatment that tempers the martensite or spheroidizes the pearlite.

 Ductile or nodular cast iron

contains spheroidal graphite particles. produced by treating liquid iron with a carbon equivalent of near 4.3% with magnesium

Steps
Desulfurization: CaO is used to remove sulfure and oxygen from the liquid. Nodulizing: Mg in dilute form (MgFeSi alloy) is added, a residual of 0.03%Mg must be present after treatment in order for spheroidal graphite to grow

inoculation: heterogeneous nucleation of the graphite is essential Fading: occurs by the gradual, nonviolent loss of Mg due to vaporization and/or reaction with oxygen

 Compacted graphite cast iron: contains rounded but interconnected graphite also produced during solidification intermediate between flakes and spheres with numerous rounded rods of graphite that are interconnected to the nucleus of the eutectic cell. vermicular graphite: forms when ductile iron fades permits strengths and ductilities that exceed those of gray cast iron, but allows the iron to retain good thermal conductivity and vibration damping properties.

Effect of alloying elemets General Characteristics of White Cast Irons

White Cast Irons contain Chromium to prevent formation of Graphite upon solidification and to ensure stability of the carbide phase. Usually, Nickel, Molybdenum, and/or Copper are alloyed to prevent to the formation of Pearlite when a matrix of Martensite is desired. Fall into three major groups: Nickel Chromium White Irons: containing 3-5%Ni, 1-4%Cr. Identified by the name Ni-Hard 1-4 The chromium-molybdenum irons (high chromium irons): 1123%Cr, 3%Mo, and sometimes additionally alloyed w/ Ni or Cu. 25-28%Cr White Irons: contain other alloying additions of Molybdenum and/or Nickel up to 1.5%

Nickel Chromium
Produced for more than 50 years, effective materials for crushing and grinding in industry. Consists of Martensite matrix, with Nickel alloyed at 3-5% in order to suppress transformation of Austenite to Pearlite. Chromium usually included between 1.4-4% to ensure Carbon phase solidifies to Carbide, not Graphite. (Counteracts the Graphitizing effect of Ni) Abrasion resistance (usually desired property of this material) increases with Carbon content, but toughness decreases. Applications: Because of low cost, used primarily in mining applications as ball mill liners and grinding balls.

High Chromium White Irons

Excellent abrasion resistance. Provide the best combination of toughness and abrasion resistance among White Cast Irons. The tradeoff is between wear resistance and toughness. Two types: the hard, discontinuous, X7C3 eutectic Carbides present in the microstructure the softer, more continuous, X3C present in Irons containing less Chromium. Usually produced by hypoeutectic compositions. For Abrasion Resistance: 11-23%Cr, 3.5%Mo. Usually supplied as cast with an Austenitic or Austenitic-Martensitic matrix, or heat treated with a martensitic matrix. Considered the hardest of all grades of White Cast Iron. For Corrosion Resistance: 26-28%Cr 1.6-2.0%C. Provide the max Cr content in the matrix for room temperature. Fully austenitic matrix provides the best resistance to corrosion in this alloy, but with a decrease in abrasion resistance. For High-Temperature Service: Often used for high temperature applications because of castability and cost. Alloyed with between 12-39% Cr at temperatures up to 1040C for scaling resistance Cr causes the formation of a Cr rich oxide film at high temperatures. Fall into three categories depending on the Matrix: Martensitic irons alloyed with 12-28%Cr; Ferritic Irons alloyed w/ 30-34%Cr; Austenitic irons that contain 15 - 30% Cr with 10-15%Ni to stabilize the Austenite phase. Applications include recuperator tubes, breaker bars and trays in sinter furnaces, other furnace parts, glass bottle molds, and valve seats for combustion engines.

Effect of composition on properties: Carbon: During solidification, Carbon precipitates to Graphite, which offsets shrinkage. Amount necessary to achieve this: %C + 1/7%Si 3.9% Also, Carbon contents greater than this amount decrease fatigue strength. Silicon: Graphitizing agent. Increasing amount of Silicon also increases amount of Ferrite. Increases strength and hardness of this Ferrite and reduces impact resistance. Also, provides high temperature oxidation resistance. For applications of high temperature, such as turbocharger housings, Silicon contents of between 3.75% and 4.25% are required. Manganese: Acts as a Pearlite stabilizer and increases strength, but decreases ductility and machinability. Nickel: Increases strength by promoting formation of fine Pearlite. Increases hardenibility. Copper: Used to form Pearlite upon solidification with high strength and good toughness and machinability. Molybdenum: Used to stabilize structures at high temperatures.

Ductile iron Mechanical Properties

Applications
Essential parts in trains, frames, suspensions, and wheels. differential cases, bearing caps, steering-gear housings, spring hangers, universal-joint yokes, automatic transmission parts, rocker arms, disc brake calipers, wheel hubs, ect... a) Driveline yokes, b) Connecting rods, c) Diesel pumps, d) Steering-gear housing.

Sample Analysis and Identification

Possible to identify and classify a sample of unknown cast iron. Identification can be accomplished through the use of many known mechanical, chemical and structural properties of the cast iron alloys. As part of our research, we attempted to examine and identify separate cast iron samples of unknown composition.

Sample Analysis and Identification

We obtained two samples of what was initially perceived to be cast iron. The first being a cooking pot, and the second a 90 pipe fitting. Both samples were cut, mounted and polished in a bakelite round, for microstructure examination. Followed by a Rockwell hardness test of each specimen.

Sample Analysis and Identification

The microstructure analysis was accomplished after polishing and etching (utilizing a 3% nitric acid solution in ethanol) to reveal the grains. Initially it was believed that both samples were cast irons, and although the 90 pipe fitting appears to be cast iron, the microstructure of the pot handle yielded a different conclusion.

Microstructure Analysis

The two micrographs are shown above, the 90 pipe fitting on the left, and the cooking pot handle on the right. The Rockwell hardness was also measured for both samples, yielding a hardness of 157 HRB for the fitting, and 120 HRB for the pot handle.

Microstructure Analysis
Upon analysis of the microstructures, it became apparent that the cooking pot does not conform to any common form of cast iron. Although the handle fractured in a manner very similar to that of cast iron, the microstructure shows little resemblance to those of cast iron. Although further analysis would be required, one possibility is a cast steel material. This would account for the similarity of its fracture to that of cast iron.

Microstructure Analysis
The 90 fitting shows indications of a dark graphite surrounded by lighter colored matrix. The graphite appears to be in the form of dark rosettes, while the matrix is a lighter color. Upon comparison to the known structure of different types of cast irons, it can be seen that the microstructure of malleable iron most closely matches our sample. To the right is a side-by-side comparison, with our sample on the top, and a known Malleable microstructure on the bottom.
Malleable Iron (150X mag)

Pipe Sample (150X mag)

Conclusion
Cast Iron and historical significance
Used throughout history since its discovery, stepping stone to the development of modern technology (First Steam Engine)

Types of Cast Irons and microstructure

Grays, Whites, Ductile, Malleable

Applications
Automotive, Industrial, Household, Aeronautical, & Construction

Sample Analysis and Comparison for identification and Classification

Capability to analyze and compare microstructures to determine Cast Iron Type. And Hardness measurements to identify heat treatment,