Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
How to get oxygen How to move How to be cool Getting rid of stuff
What is Physiology?
Herbivory
Can be defined as the ability of organisms to eat and digest living plant material. Digestion can be defined as the breakdown of complex molecules to simpler ones through the use of mechanical and chemical processes. Generally the chemical processes involve the action of enzymes. Enzymes are chemical catalysts, almost always proteins, that act to lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction, thus minimizing the energy necessary for breakdown of large molecules to occur.
For the organism the balance of energy is important. It must minimize energy expenditure while maximizing energy generation. Ultimately energy generation occurs through breakdown of glucose in respiration but prior to this process the glucose molecules must be generated to enter into the Krebs cycle or glycolysis. Thus the function of digestion is to produce simple molecules which can be broken down to yield energy. This process however REQUIRES energy, so for the organism, the energy gain must exceed the energy lost through instigating the breakdown process
This is the basis of energetics-the study of energy balance in an organism. Basic energetics equation: E(In) = E(Out) +E(P). Where E(P)=Energy retained for production or growth. The equation can be expanded to: R=F+U+M+P Where : R = Ingested energy F and U = Energy losses in faeces and excretory products respectively M = Energy lost in metabolism.
M can be further subdivided into: 1) Energy for bodily functions 2) Energy used for movement 3) Energy used for digestion absorption and processing of food. P can be further subdivided into: 1) Energy used in production of gametes. 2) Energy used for somatic growth The partitioning of energy into the various components can be determined experimentally and constitutes determination of the energy budget for the organism
Plant cells characteristically have cell walls. These are composed of a variety of substances celluloses ,hemicelluloses, lignin etc. These structural polysaccharides are large molecules composed of sugar units joined by glycosidic links. Number one problem is that most macroorganisms (herbivores) lack the appropriate enzymes to break the bonds in the macromolecule and thus the cell contents are largely resistant to digestion.
Hemicelluloses
Three types. Xylans,mannans and glucomannans Many have same 1-4 glycosidic backbone as cellulose but have side chains which prevents close packing. This allows some solubility Xylans found in seed coats
Possible solutions
Plant material decomposes once it dies. Decomposition is carried out by microorganisms which DO possess cellulose digesting enzymes: cellulases. These micro-organisms are mainly fungi and bacteria. Possible Solution 1. Allow material to die and decomposition to begin and then consume decomposing material and decomposers. This solution is seen in detritivores. Very common in fishes. Possible Solution 2. Incorporate decomposers within the digestive system to allow breakdown process to occur within digestive System. Symbiosis. This occurs in most terrestrial herbivores but has evolved in a number of different ways
Ruminant digestion
Digestive tract greatly enlarged. Microbial digestion slow process . Fermentation. Needs ability to store large amounts of food. Feeding continuous. Typical capacity of cow 91 litres. Requires large amounts of saliva. Saliva high in bicarbonate content necessary to neutralise acidic pHs generated in the stomach by microbial digestion. Main digestion products organic acids lowers pH. Structure of the rumen 4 chambers: rumen ,reticulum and omasum lined with keratinised squamous epithelium. None of them produces digestive enzymes. Abomasum normal mammalian stomach. house the microbial flora. Microbial flora consists of a wide variety of microorganisms thus equipping the animal with the ability to break down a range of structural compounds. Not Lignin. Chief fermentation end product: organic acids : acetic, proprionic, butyric etc. Little glucose from digestion of cellulose as this is used by microorganisms
Certain microorganisms responsible for splitting proteins into amino acids. Mainly theses are taken up by the microorganisms themselves. BUT microorganisms are ultimately digested as a source of protein by the ruminant. Ruminant microorganisms are able to utilize urea and ammonia to synthesise protein thus increasing protein content using waste products. Urea produced in the liver is returned to the rumen in the saliva and in the blood by diffusion from the blood. Some is converted to ammonia. Both components are used in protein synthesis by the microorganisms. Microorganisms are also responsible for the synthesis of B vitamins (particularly B12) and vitamin C. Microorganisms synthesise all essential amino acids. Ruminants able to survive irrespective of protein quality Both these abilities allow ruminants to survive on poor quality plant material or during times of drought.
Energy Budget
Energy Budget : Percentage of original intake Free fatty acids 20 Digested by normal processes 25 Bacteria digested by normal processes 15 Subtotal of utilizable energy 60 Faeces Gas and Heat Subtotal of energy lost 25 15 40
Fermentation products major source of energy. Approximately 70% of energy needs of a cow met from organic acids. Large quantity of energy lost as methane gas(>10% of daily digested food energy) eg Cow fed 5kg hay produces 191litres of methane
Caecum
Can be defined as a blind ending diverticulum in the digestive tract where microbial digestion/fermentation takes place. Usually found at the junction of the small and large intestines Found in a number of groups: perissodactyls (horses, zebras, rhinoceroses), elephants and hyraxes, lagomorphs and rodents and dugongs are the mammal groups. Also Green turtles, Iguanas, and some birds eg willow ptarmigan feeds on leaves and twigs. Derives 30% of energy from fermentation. Green turtles feed on sea grasses. 90% of cellulose digested by fermentation. Common iguana -fermentation in hind gut. Captive reared individuals need to acquire correct flora from feeding on the faeces of wild individuals
Advantages of ruminants
Location of fermentation chamber at anterior of gut allows digested products to pass through small intestine and be subjected to further digestion. Regurgitation is possible. Finer breakdown of plant material. Compare cow and horse faeces. Recycling of urea allows nitrogen that would be lost to be utilised. Allows ruminants to survive on low-grade food Also seen in macropode marsupials eg kangeroos. Saftey. Anmal is able to continue processing food which is stored in the digestive tract in safety. Less exposure to predators
Rabbit Stomach
Herbivory in Fishes.
Many fishes eat plant material. There are a number of strategies employed: Detritivory. This is particularly common in freshwater fishes which rely on bacteria in the environment to digest the structural carbohydrates. Many such fishes have pyloric caeca which are a site of absorption in detritivorous fishes Long intestine. Generally fishes which digest plant material have a much longer intestine relative to body length than fishes which feed on animal material. Many of these fishes lack a stomach, e.g. Scaridae, (parrot fishes), Cyprinidae (carps). Ratio of intestine length to body length: Carnivores:033-075. Herbivores:2-20. Detritivores > 5.
Gizzard-like stomach. Some fishes employ a grinding mechanism to mechanically rupture the cell walls of plant material e.g. Mugilidae (grey mullets) which have a muscular gizzard like stomach Caecum The family Kyphosidae which is found in Australia have a caecum like structure with microflora: ciliates and bacteria, which is used for fermentation and produces shortchain fatty acids as a digestion product. Teeth Many fishes have grinding molariform teeth in the mouth but the most common mechanism is the presence of pharyngeal teeth. These are located in the pharynx (surprisingly!) and give a very efficient grinding mechanism to rupture the cell walls of plant material. Seen in Cyprinidae and Cichlidae. This process is known as Trituration
Low pH in stomach. Plant cells walls can also be ruptured by exposing them to low pH (approximately 1 or 1.5). This is seen in a variety of plant eating fishes e.g. Cichlidae. This process is known as Lysis. Most herbivorous fishes use a combination of strategies
Humans
Humans are defined as omnivores they however have the ability to digest plant material. This takes place in the caecum by means of fermentation. The constraints in terms of energy yield are the same as for other animals with a caecum. Dietary fibre is the edible parts of plants which are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine. Physiological benefits: 1) laxation, 2) attenuation of blood glucose and/or cholesterol.
Significantly lower incidence of constipation, diverticulosis and digestive cancer associated with high fibre diets. Mechanism. Bulk due to fibre improves the musculature of the intestinal wall and lessens the time that potential carcinogens are held in the intestine Butyric acid derived from fermentation of cellulose is toxic to tumor cells, inducing apoptosis. Short chain fatty acids promote the growth of bifidobacteria which prevent the establishment of nondesirable intestinal flora