Unit 1:

Amplifiers
Differential Amplifier
is a type of electronic amplifier that multiplies the difference between two
inputs by some constant factor (the differential gain).

is the basic building block of operational amplifiers.
A Schematic Symbol of a
Differential Amplifier
where:
Vs
+
and Vs
_
= supply voltages
A= amplifier gain
V
+
= non-inverting input
V_ = inverting input
Basic Differential Amplifier Circuit
DC Bias
Example page 651
Calculate the dc voltages and currents in the circuit below.
Single-Ended AC Voltage Gain
AC Equivalent
Example page 654
Calculate the single-ended output voltage, V
0
1
, in the circuit below.
Double-Ended AC Voltage Gain
AC Equivalent
2 1
2
i i d
i d
o
d
V V V
r
Rc
V
V
A
=
= =
|
where:
A
d
= Differential Mode Gain
Common-Mode Operation
Common-Mode Connection
AC Circuit in Common-Mode Connection
( )
E i
C
i
o
C
R r
R
V
V
A
1 2 + +
= =
|
|
Example page 656
Calculate the common-mode gain for the amplifier circuit shown below.

1
=
2
=75
r
i
1
= r
i
2
= r
i

=20k
Use of Constant Current Source
Differential Amplifier with constant-current source
AC Equivalent
( )
E i
C
i
o
C
R r
R
V
V
A
1 2 + +
= =
|
|
Example page 657
Calculate the common-mode gain for the differential amplifier in the circuit below.

1
=
2
= =75
r
i
1
= r
i
2
= r
i

=11k
Q
3
r
o
=200k

3
=75
Infinite input impedance
Infinite open-loop gain
High Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMMR)
Differential input voltage is zero
Zero output impedance
Infinite Bandwidth
Characteristics of an Ideal op-amp
Inverting Amplifier
-is a constant gain amplifier circuit.
Example Page 685
If the circuit above has R
1
=100k and R
f
=500k, what output voltage results
for an input of V
1
=2V?
V V
k
k
V
R
R
Vo
f
10 ) 2 (
100
500
1
1
=
O
O
= =
Example page 716
Determine the output voltage for a 741 op-amp shown below with a
sinusoidal input of 2.5 mV.
Noninverting Amplifier
-is a constant gain amplifier circuit.
Example Page 686
If the circuit above has R
1
=100k and R
f
=500k, what output voltage results
for an input of V
1
=2V?
Example page 716
Calculate the output voltage from the circuit below for an input of 120V.
240k
2.4k
+16V
-16V
Multi-Stage Gains
When a number of stages are connected in series, the overall gain is the
product of the individual stage gains.
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
=
R3
R
R2
R
R
R
1 A
A A A A
f f
1
f
3 2 1
The total gain (3-stages) is given by:



or
Example page 717
Calculate the output voltage using the multi-stage circuit shown below for
resistor components of value R
f
=470k, R
1
=4.3k, R
2
=33k and
R
3
=33k for an input of 80V.
Example page 717
Show the connection of an LM124 quad op-amp as a three-stage
amplifier with gains of +10, -18 and -27. Use 270-k feedback resistor for
all three circuits. What output voltage will result for an input of 150V?
Example page 718
Show the connection of three op-amp stages using an LM348 IC to
provide outputs that are 10, 20 and 50 times larger than the input. Use a
feedback resistor of R
f
=500k in all stages.
Voltage Buffer/ Unity Follower
Realistically these circuits
are designed using equal
resistors (R
1
= R
f
) to avoid
problems with offset
voltages.
Any amplifier with no gain or loss is called a unity gain amplifier.
The advantages of using a unity gain amplifier:

Very high input impedance
Very low output impedance
V
0
= V
1
Example
5V
10
3mA
1M
100k
20k
1k
+ v
x
-
100
1M
100
Voltage Summing Amplifier
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
3
3
f
2
2
f
1
1
f
o
V
R
R
V
R
R
V
R
R
V
The output is the sum of individual signals times the gain:
The summing amplifier is used to add the voltages.
Since the input resistance is very large V
1
=V
2
=0, therefore
Example Page 687
Calculate the output voltage of an op-amp summing amplifier for the following
sets of voltages and resistors. Use R
f
=1M in all cases.
(a) V
1
=1V, V
2
=2V, V
3
=3V, R
1
=500k, R
2
=1M, R
3
=1M.
(b) V
1
=-2V, V
2
=3V, V
3
=1V, R
1
=200k, R
2
=500k, R
3
=1M.
Example Page 720
Calculate the output voltage for the circuit of the figure below. The inputs
are V
1
= 50mV sin(1000t) and V
2
=10mV sin(3000t).
330k
33k
10k
+9V
-9V
741
4
5
6
11
10
Example
100k
V
1
=0.1V
20k
10k
400k
20k
Vo
Subtractor Amplifier
2 1
2
2
4
1
2
4 2
3 1
3
V V Vo
R R and R R if
V
R
R
V
R
R R
R R
R
Vo
4 2 3 1
=
= =

+
+
=
-is used to subtract two voltages.
V
o
V
2
V
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
(
(

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
1 3
2
2
2
2
1
1 3
V
R R
Rf R
V
R
R
Vo
V
R
R
V
R
R
R
R
Vo
f f
f f f
Example page 721
Determine the output for the circuit below with the components R
f
=1 M, R
1
=100k,
R
2
=50k and R
3
=500k.
Example page 721
Determine the output voltage for the circuit shown below.
V
o
100k 100k
20k
20k Vo
741
0dB is gain the which at f requency
C R
f
f requency limiting gain
C R
f
dt t v
RC
t v
F
b
F F
a
o
,
2
1
,
2
1
) (
1
) (
1
1
t
t
=
=
=
}
Integrator Amplifier
Input-output waveforms using square wave
-is used to produce a voltage output proportional to the product (multiplication)
of the input voltage and time
Input-output waveforms using sine wave
Example 7-15 page 279
In the circuit of Figure 1, R
1
C
F
= 1 second and the input is a step (dc) voltage
as shown in Figure 2. Determine the output voltage and sketch it. Assume that
the op-amp is initially nulled.
Figure 1
Figure 2
Differentiator Amplifier
f requency limiting gain
C R C R
f
0dB is gain the which at f requency
C R
f
dt
t dv
RC t v
F F
b
F
a
o
,
2
1
2
1
,
2
1
) (
) (
1 1
1
1
t t
t
= =
=
=
-is used to produce a voltage output proportional to the input voltage's rate of change
-is used in waveshaping circuits to detect high frequency components in an input signal
and also as a rate-of-change detector in FM modulators.
Input-output waveforms
Differentiator Amplifier
Time period, T R
F
C
1
Steps in designing a workable Differentiator
1. Select f
a
equal to the highest frequency of the input signal to be differentiated.
Then, assuming a value of C
1
< 1F, calculate the value of R
F
.

2. Choose f
b
=20f
a
and calculate the values of R
1
and C
F
so that R
1
C
1
=R
F
C
F
.
Practical Differentiator Circuit
(a) Design a differentiator to differentiate an input signal that varies in frequency
from 10 Hz to about 1 kHz.
(b) If a sine wave of 1V peak at 1000 Hz is applied to the differentiator of part
(a), draw its output waveform.
Example 7-16 page 283

Peak Detector
4
+
3
-
2
7
6
GND
Rom=R
-
R
+
Vin
D1
C
D2
RL=10k
+
Vo
-
+
-Vee
Vcc
++
-
Input Waveform
Output Waveform
741 Pin Out
Diagram
10
T
CR
d
s T CR
L
10 >
A conventional ac voltmeter cannot be used to measure the
non sinusoidal waveforms line sawtooth triangular, pulse
wave etc, because it is designed to measure rms value of a
sine wave.
For proper operation:
Charging Time Constant Discharging time constant


R
d
is forward bias resistance of the diode
R
L
is the load resistor
R protect opamp from excessive discharge current.
Rom =R minimizes offset problems
D
2
prevents the op-amp from going into negative
saturation.
Precision Rectifier
Why?
Signals of few millivolts (peak)
High open loop gain
Rectifier output same as input
Precision Rectifier
Precision Half-wave rectifier
Precision Rectifier
Precision Full-wave rectifier
Vi
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
This produces a voltage drop between points 3 and 4 equal to:
General Expression for overall voltage gain in the instrumentation amplifier
-is a differential op-amp circuit providing high input impedances with ease of
gain adjustment through the variation of a single resistor, Rgain.
Example page 728
Calculate the output voltage expression for the instrumentation amplifier circuit
given below. Assume that all resistors are 5k.
Log Amplifier
A logarithmic amplifier has an output voltage that is proportional to the logarithm
of the input.
Logarithmic Amplifier circuit
amp op of current bias input
V
R
I
V
R
i
c
i
_ _ _ _ _
max
max
max
1
1
s
>
The capacitor across the npn transistor is used to reduce the ac gain.

The diode protects the transistor against excessive reverse base-to-emitter voltage.

Resistor R
1
is determined by the inequality pair
V
BE
= A log (I
c
)
Example
Design a logarithmic amplifier, using the circuit below, having an input
voltage varying from 1 mV to 10 volts. Assume that the input bias current of
the op-amp (e.g., a 741) is 80 nA, and the maximum collector current is to
be 1 mA.
Anti Log Amplifier
Multiplication of two input signals using log and antilog amplifier
log (AB) = log A + log B
log (A/B) = log A - log B
Basic Multiplier Circuitry