DR Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design

Advanced Algorithms Analysis
and Design
By

Dr. Nazir Ahmad Zafar
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
Lecture No. 45

Review Lecture
Analysis independent of the variations in machine,
operating system, language, compiler, etc.
Our model was an abstraction of a standard generic
single-processor machine, called a random access
machine RAM
infinitely large random-access memory,
instructions execute sequentially
Every instruction, a basic operation taking unit time.
We identified some weaknesses in our model of
computation but finally we proved that with all these
weaknesses, our model is not so bad because it
fulfils our needs in design and analysis of algorithms
Lecture No 1: Model of Computation
A Sequence of Mathematical Tools
Sets, Sequences, Cross Product, Relation,
Functions, Operators over above structures
Logic and Proving Techniques
Propositional Logic, Predicate Logic
Proofs Logical Equivalences, Contradiction, Rule of
Inference
Mathematical Induction
Simple Induction
Strong Induction
Lecture No 2, 3, 4 & 5: Mathematical Tools
Fibonacci Sequences
Recursion? Recursive Mathematical Models
First, second, higher order Linear Homogenous
Recurrences with Constant Coefficients
General Homogenous Recurrence when
Roots distinct, repeated, multiplicity of root is k
many roots with different multiplicities
Non-homogenous Recurrence, Characteristics
and solution
Recursive Tree methods
Substitution Method
Proof of Master Theorem
Lecture 6, 7, 8, & 9: Recursion
Major Factors in Algorithms Design
Complexity Analysis
Growth of Functions
Asymptotic Notations
Usefulness of Notations
Reflexivity, Symmetry, Transitivity Relations over
O, O, O, e and o
Relation between O, O and O
Various Examples Explaining each concept
Lecture 10 & 11: Asymptotic Notations
Brute Force Approach,
Checking primality
Sorting sequence of numbers
Knapsack problem
Closest pair in 2-D, 3-D and n-D
Finding maximal points in n-D

Divide and Conquer?
Merge Sort algorithm
Finding Maxima in 1-D, and 2-D
Finding Closest Pair in 2-D
Lecture 12, 13 & 14
Optimizations Problems and Dynamic Programming
1. Chain-Matrix Multiplication
2. Assembly Line Scheduling Problem
3. Generalization to n-Line Assembly Problem
4. 0-1 Knapsack Problem
5. Optimal Weight Triangulation
6. Longest Common sub-sequence problem
7. Optimal Binary Search Trees

Lecture 15 - 24: Dynamic Programming
Statement: The chain-matrix multiplication
problem can be stated as below:
Given a chain of [A
1
, A
2
, . . . , A
n
] of n matrices for
i = 1, 2, . . . , n, matrix A
i
has dimension p
i-1
x p
i
,
find the order of multiplication which minimizes
the number of scalar multiplications.
Objective Function
Let m[i, j] = minimum number of multiplications
needed to compute A
i..j
, for 1 i j n
Objective function = finding minimum number of
multiplications needed to compute A
1..n
i.e. to
compute m[1, n]
1. Chain Matrix Multiplication
There are two assembly lines each with n stations
The jth station on line i is denoted by S
i, j

The assembly time at that station is a
i,j
.
An auto enters factory, goes into line i taking time e
i

After going through the jth station on a line i, the auto
goes on to the (j+1)st station on either line
There is no transfer cost if it stays on the same line
It takes time t
i,j
to transfer to other line after station S
i,j

After exiting the nth station on a line, it takes time x
i
for
the completed auto to exit the factory.
Problem is to determine which stations to choose from
lines 1 and 2 to minimize total time through the factory.
2. Assembly-Line Scheduling
Let f
i
[j] = fastest time from starting point station S
i, j

Objective function = f* = min(f
1
[n] + x
1
, f
2
[n] + x
2
)
l* = line no. whose n
th
station is used in fastest way.
Dr. Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
2. Assembly-Line Scheduling Problem
S1 j-1
8

5

6

5

7

In Out
2
4
3
2
S
i,j
a
i,j
t
1,j-1
There are n assembly lines each with m stations
The jth station on line i is denoted by S
i, j

The assembly time at that station is a
i,j
.
An auto enters factory, goes into line i taking time e
i

After going through the jth station on a line i, the auto
goes on to the (j+1)st station on either line
It takes time t
i,j
to transfer from line i, station j to line i
and station j+1
After exiting the nth station on a line i, it takes time x
i

for the completed auto to exit the factory.
Problem is to determine which stations to choose from
lines 1 to n to minimize total time through the factory.
3. n Line Assembly Scheduling Problem
Let f
i
[j] = fastest time from starting point to station S
i, j

l
i
[j] = Line no. 1 to n, for station j-1 used in fastest way
t
i
[j-1] = transfer time from station S
i, j-1
to station S
i
,
, j

a[i, j] = time of assembling at station S
i, j

f* = is minimum time through any way
l* = line no. whose m
th
station is used in a fastest way
3. n-Line Assembly Problem
s 11 s 12 s 13 s 1 m
s 21 s 22 s 23 s 2 m
In
Out
ei
x 1
xi
sn 1 sn 2 sn 3 snm
en
xn
sij
si 1 si 2 si 3 sim
t ( 1 , j - 1 )
e 1
Assumption
Each item must be put entirely in the knapsack or
not included at all that is why the problem is called
0-1 knapsack problem
Remarks
Because an item cannot be broken up arbitrarily, so
it is its 0-1 property that makes the knapsack
problem hard.
If an item can be broken and allowed to take part of
it then algorithm can be solved using greedy
approach optimally
4. 0-1 Knapsack Problem
A triangulation of a convex polygon is a maximal set
T of pair-wise non-crossing chords.
It is easy to see that such a set subdivides interior of
polygon into a collection of triangles, pair-wise disjoint

Problem Statement
Given a convex polygon, determine a triangulation
that minimizes sum of the perimeters of its triangles
5. Optimal Weight Triangulation Problem
Statement:
In the longest-common-subsequence (LCS) problem,
we are given two sequences
X = <x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
m
> and
Y = <y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
>
And our objective is to find a maximum-length
common subsequence of X and Y.

Note:
This LCS problem can be solved using brute force
approach as well but using dynamic programming it
will be solved more efficiently.
6. Longest Common Subsequence Problem
If X = (x
1
, x
2
,. . ., x
m
), and Y = (y
1
, y
2
, . . ., y
n
) be
sequences and let us suppose that Z = (z
1
, z
2
, . . .,
z
k
) be a longest common sub-sequence of X and Y
1. if x
m
= y
n
, then z
k
= x
m
and Z
k 1
is LCS of X
m 1,
Y
n-1
.
2. If x
m
= y
n
, then z
k
= x
m
implies that Z is LCS of X
m 1

and Y
3. If x
m
= y
n
then z
k
= y
n
implies Z is LCS of X and Y
n 1

Optimal Substructure of an LCS
= >
= > +
= =
=
j i
j i
y x and 0 j i, if )) 1 , ( ), , 1 ( max(
y x and 0 j i, if 1 ) 1 , 1 (
0 j OR 0 i if 0
) , (
j i c j i c
j i c j i c
A translator from English to, say, Urdu.
Use a binary search tree to store all the words in our
dictionary, together with their translations.
The word the is much more likely to be looked up
than the word ring
So we would like to make the search time for the
word the very short, possibly at the expense of
increasing the search time for the word ring.

Problem Statement:
We are given a probability distribution that
determines, for every key in the tree, the likelihood
that we search for this key. Objective is to minimize
expected search time of tree.
7. Optimal Binary Search Trees
List of Greedy Algorithms discussed in this Course
1. Activity Selection Problem
2. Fractional Knapsack Problem
3. Coin Change Making Problem
4. Huffman Problem
5. Road Trip Problem
Lecture 25-26: Greedy Algorithms
We went through the following steps in the above problem:
1. Determine the suboptimal structure of the problem.
2. Develop a recursive solution.
3. Prove that at any stage of the recursion, one of the
optimal choices is the greedy choice. Thus, it is always
safe to make the greedy choice.
4. Show that all but one of the sub-problems induced by
having made the greedy choice are empty.
5. Develop a recursive algorithm that implements the
greedy strategy.
6. Convert this recursive algorithm to an iterative one.
Steps Designing Greedy Algorithms
In Huffman coding, variable length code is used
Data considered to be a sequence of characters.
Huffman codes are a widely used and very effective
technique for compressing data
Savings of 20% to 90% are typical, depending on the
characteristics of the data being compressed.
Huffmans algorithm uses table of frequencies of
occurrence of characters to build up an optimal way
of representing each character as a binary string.
Objective in Huffman coding is to develop a code
that represents given text as compactly as possible
Huffman Codes
Graph Theoretic Algorithms
Graph Concepts and types of graphs
Representation of graphs
Searching Algorithms
Backtracking, Branch and Bound Algorithms
Applications of Searching Algorithm
Minimal Spanning Tree Algorithms
Kruskals Algorithm
Prims Algorithm
Shortest Path Algorithms
Lecture 27-37: Graph Theoretic Algorithms
Given a graph G = (V, E) such that
G is connected and undirected
w(u, v) weight of edge (u, v)

T is a Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) of G if
T is acyclic subset of E (T E)
It connects all the vertices of G and

Total weight, w(T) = is minimized.

eT v u
v u w
) , (
) , (
Minimum Spanning Tree
Shortest Path Problems
Single-source shortest path
The Bellman-Ford Algorithm
Shortest Path in directed acyclic graphs
Dijkstras Algorithm
Single-destination shortest path
Single-pair shortest path
All-pairs shortest-paths
Matrix Multiplication
The Floyd-Warshall Algorithm
Johnsons Algorithm
The Bellman-Ford Algorithm

BELLMAN-FORD (G, w, s)
1 INITIALIZE-SINGLE-SOURCE (G, s)
2 for i 1 to |V [G]| - 1
3 do for each edge (u, v) E[G]
4 do RELAX (u, v, w)
5 for each edge (u, v) E[G]
6 do if d[v] > d[u] + w(u, v)
7 then return FALSE
8 return TRUE
(V)
}
(V.E)
}
O(E)
Total Running Time = O(V.E)
Contd..
Algorithm : Shortest Path (dag)
DAG-SHORTEST-PATHS (G, w, s)
1 topologically sort the vertices of G
2 INITIALIZE-SINGLE-SOURCE (G, s)

3 for each vertex u, taken in topologically
sorted order
4 do for each vertex v Adj[u]
5 do RELAX (u, v, w)

(V+E)
Each iteration of for
loop takes (1)
Total Running Time = (V+E)
(V)
O(V)
O(E)
Input Given graph G(V, E) with source s, weights w
Assumption
Edges non-negative, w(u, v) 0, (u, v) E
Directed, if (u, v) e E then (v, u) may or may not e E
Objective: Find shortest paths from s to every u V
Approach
Maintain a set S of vertices whose final shortest-path
weights from s have been determined
Repeatedly select, u V S with minimum shortest
path estimate, add u to S, relax all edges leaving u.
Greedy, always choose light vertex in V-S , add to S
Dijkstras Algorithm
Lecture 38-40: Number Theoretic Algorithms
Applications of Number Theory
Some Important Concepts and Fats useful in
number theoretic Algorithms
Modular Arithmetic
Finding GCD
Euclids Algorithm
Extended Euclids Algorithm
Residues and Reduced set of Residues
Chinese Remainder Theorem
RSA Cryptosystem
1. Choose two distinct large random prime numbers
p and q such that p = q
2. Compute n by n = pq, n is used as modulus
3. Compute the totient function (n)
4. Choose an integer e such that 1 < e < (n) and e
and (n) share no factors other than 1
5. Compute d to satisfy the congruence relation;
de 1 mod (n) i.e.
de = 1 + k(n) for some integer k
6. Publish the pair P =(e, n) as his RSA public Key
7. Keep secret pair S =(d, n) as his RSA secret Key
The RSA Public Key Cryptosystem
Lecture 41-44: Further Topics
String Matching Problem
Nave approach
Rabin Karp algorithm
String Matching using Finite automata
Polynomials and Fast Fourier Transform
NP Completeness

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